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From Sand to Silicon
                                                            “Making of a Chip”
                                                                  Illustrations

                                                                                                            May 2009




    Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
    Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
1
The illustrations on the following foils are low
      resolution images that visually support the
      explanations of the individual steps.

      For publishing purposes there are high
      resolution JPEG files posted to the Intel website:
      www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/chipmaking

      Optionally high resolution TIFF images are
      available as well. Please request them from
      markus.weingartner@intel.com




    Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
    Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
2
Sand / Ingot




                                                        Melted Silicon –                                  Mono-crystal Silicon Ingot –
    Sand
                                                        scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch)             scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch)
    With about 25% (mass) Silicon is – after
    Oxygen – the second most frequent chemical          Silicon is purified in multiple steps to          An ingot has been produced from
    element in the earth’s crust. Sand –                finally reach semiconductor manufacturing         Electronic Grade Silicon. One ingot
    especially Quartz - has high percentages of         quality which is called Electronic Grade          weights about 100 kilograms (=220
    Silicon in the form of Silicon dioxide (SiO2)       Silicon. Electronic Grade Silicon may only        pounds) and has a Silicon purity of
    and is the base ingredient for semiconductor        have one alien atom every one billion             99.9999%.
    manufacturing.                                      Silicon atoms. In this picture you can see
                                                        how one big crystal is grown from the
                                                        purified silicon melt. The resulting mono
                                                        crystal is called Ingot.



        Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
        Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
3
Ingot / Wafer




                                                                                                Wafer –
                                                                                                scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch)
                                                                                                The wafers are polished until they have
                                    Ingot Slicing –                                             flawless, mirror-smooth surfaces. Intel buys
                                    scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch)                       those manufacturing ready wafers from
                                    The Ingot is cut into individual silicon discs              third party companies. Intel’s highly
                                    called wafers.                                              advanced 45nm High-K/Metal Gate process
                                                                                                uses wafers with a diameter of 300
                                                                                                millimeter (~12 inches). When Intel first
                                                                                                began making chips, the company printed
                                                                                                circuits on 2-inch (50mm) wafers. Now the
                                                                                                company uses 300mm wafers, resulting in
                                                                                                decreased costs per chip.



     Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
     Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
4
Photo Lithography




                                           Exposure –
                                           scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch)
                                           The photo resist finish is exposed to ultra violet (UV)        Exposure –
Applying Photo Resist –                    light. The chemical reaction triggered by that process         scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)
scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch)      step is similar to what happens to film material in a          Although usually hundreds of
The liquid (blue here) that’s poured       film camera the moment you press the shutter                   microprocessors are built on a single wafer,
onto the wafer while it spins is a photo   button. The photo resist finish that’s exposed to UV           this picture story will only focus on a small
resist finish similar as the one known     light will become soluble. The exposure is done using          piece of a microprocessor from now on – on
from film photography. The wafer           masks that act like stencils in this process step. When        a transistor or parts thereof. A transistor
spins during this step to allow very       used with UV light, masks create the various circuit           acts as a switch, controlling the flow of
thin and even application of this photo    patterns on each layer of the microprocessor. A lens           electrical current in a computer chip. Intel
resist layer.                              (middle) reduces the mask’s image. So what gets                researchers have developed transistors so
                                           printed on the wafer is typically four times smaller           small that about 30 million of them could fit
                                           linearly than the mask’s pattern.                              on the head of a pin.



         Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
         Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
5
Etching




    Washing off of Photo Resist –                     Etching –                                           Removing Photo Resist –
    scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)               scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)                 scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)
    The gooey photo resist is completely              The photo resist is protecting material
    dissolved by a solvent. This reveals a                                                                After the etching the photo resist is
                                                      that should not be etched away. Revealed            removed and the desired shape becomes
    pattern of photo resist made by the               material will be etched away with
    mask.                                                                                                 visible.
                                                      chemicals.




        Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
        Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
6
Ion Implantation




    Applying Photo Resist –                        Ion Implantation –
                                                                                                                  Removing Photo Resist –
    scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)            scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)
                                                                                                                  scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)
    There’s photo resist (blue color)              Through a process called ion implantation (one
                                                                                                                  After the ion implantation the photo
    applied, exposed and exposed photo             form of a process called doping), the exposed
                                                                                                                  resist will be removed and the material
    resist is being washed off before the          areas of the silicon wafer are bombarded with
                                                                                                                  that should have been doped (green)
    next step. The photo resist will protect       various chemical impurities called Ions. Ions are
                                                                                                                  has alien atoms implanted now (notice
    material that should not get ions              implanted in the silicon wafer to alter the way
                                                                                                                  slight variations in color)
    implanted.                                     silicon in these areas conducts electricity. Ions are
                                                   shot onto the surface of the wafer at very high
                                                   speed. An electrical field accelerates the ions to a
                                                   speed of over 300,000 km/h (~185,000 mph)



          Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
          Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
7
Metal Deposition




                                                        Electroplating –
    Ready Transistor –
                                                        scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)                 After Electroplating –
    scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)
                                                        The wafers are put into a copper sulphate           scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)
    This transistor is close to being finished.
                                                        solution as this stage. The copper ions are         On the wafer surface the copper ions
    Three holes have been etched into the
                                                        deposited onto the transistor thru a                settle as a thin layer of copper.
    insulation layer (magenta color) above
                                                        process called electroplating. The copper
    the transistor. These three holes will be
                                                        ions travel from the positive terminal
    filled with copper which will make up
                                                        (anode) to the negative terminal (cathode)
    the connections to other transistors.
                                                        which is represented by the wafer.




          Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
          Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
8
Metal Layers




     Polishing –
     scale: transistor level (~50-200nm)
     The excess material is polished off.                   Metal Layers – scale: transistor level (six transistors combined ~500nm)
                                                            Multiple metal layers are created to interconnect (think: wires) in between the
                                                            various transistors. How these connections have to be “wired” is determined by the
                                                            architecture and design teams that develop the functionality of the respective
                                                            processor (e.g. Intel® Core™ i7 Processor ). While computer chips look extremely flat,
                                                            they may actually have over 20 layers to form complex circuitry. If you look at a
                                                            magnified view of a chip, you will see an intricate network of circuit lines and
                                                            transistors that look like a futuristic, multi-layered highway system.



      Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
      Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
9
Wafer Sort Test / Slicing




     Wafer Sort Test –
                                                        Wafer Slicing –
     scale: die level (~10mm / ~0.5 inch)                                                                 Discarding faulty Dies –
                                                        scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch)
     This fraction of a ready wafer is being                                                              scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch)
                                                        The wafer is cut into pieces (called dies).
     put to a first functionality test. In this                                                           The dies that responded with the right
     stage test patterns are fed into every                                                               answer to the test pattern will be put
     single chip and the response from the                                                                forward for the next step (packaging).
     chip monitored and compared to “the
     right answer”.




        Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
        Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
10
Packaging




                                                      Packaging –
     Individual Die –                                                                                       Processor –
                                                      scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch)
     scale: die level (~10mm / ~0.5 inch)                                                                   scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch)
                                                      The substrate, the die and the
     This is an individual die which has been                                                               Completed processor (Intel® Core™ i7
                                                      heatspreader are put together to form a
     cut out in the previous step (slicing). The                                                            Processor in this case). A microprocessor
                                                      completed processor. The green substrate
     die shown here is a die of an Intel® Core™                                                             is the most complex manufactured
                                                      builds the electrical and mechanical
     i7 Processor .                                                                                         product on earth. In fact, it takes
                                                      interface for the processor to interact with
                                                                                                            hundreds of steps – only the most
                                                      the rest of the PC system. The silver
                                                                                                            important ones have been visualized in
                                                      heatspreader is a thermal interface where
                                                                                                            this picture story - in the world's cleanest
                                                      a cooling solution will be put on to. This will
                                                                                                            environment (a microprocessor fab) to
                                                      keep the processor cool during operation.
                                                                                                            make microprocessors.



          Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
          Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
11
Class Testing / Completed Processor




     Class Testing –                                   Binning –
     scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch)            scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch)               Retail Package –
     During this final test the processors will        Based on the test result of class testing            scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch)
     be tested for their key characteristics           processors with the same capabilities are            The readily manufactured and tested
     (among the tested characteristics are             put into the same transporting trays.                processors (again Intel® Core™ i7
     power dissipation and maximum                                                                          Processor is shown here) either go to
     frequency).                                                                                            system manufacturers in trays or into
                                                                                                            retail stores in a box such as that shown
                                                                                                            here.




          Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
          Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
12
Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved.
     Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.
13

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From Sand to Silicon: Making of a Chip Illustrated Process

  • 1. From Sand to Silicon “Making of a Chip” Illustrations May 2009 Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 1
  • 2. The illustrations on the following foils are low resolution images that visually support the explanations of the individual steps. For publishing purposes there are high resolution JPEG files posted to the Intel website: www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/chipmaking Optionally high resolution TIFF images are available as well. Please request them from markus.weingartner@intel.com Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 2
  • 3. Sand / Ingot Melted Silicon – Mono-crystal Silicon Ingot – Sand scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch) scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch) With about 25% (mass) Silicon is – after Oxygen – the second most frequent chemical Silicon is purified in multiple steps to An ingot has been produced from element in the earth’s crust. Sand – finally reach semiconductor manufacturing Electronic Grade Silicon. One ingot especially Quartz - has high percentages of quality which is called Electronic Grade weights about 100 kilograms (=220 Silicon in the form of Silicon dioxide (SiO2) Silicon. Electronic Grade Silicon may only pounds) and has a Silicon purity of and is the base ingredient for semiconductor have one alien atom every one billion 99.9999%. manufacturing. Silicon atoms. In this picture you can see how one big crystal is grown from the purified silicon melt. The resulting mono crystal is called Ingot. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 3
  • 4. Ingot / Wafer Wafer – scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch) The wafers are polished until they have Ingot Slicing – flawless, mirror-smooth surfaces. Intel buys scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch) those manufacturing ready wafers from The Ingot is cut into individual silicon discs third party companies. Intel’s highly called wafers. advanced 45nm High-K/Metal Gate process uses wafers with a diameter of 300 millimeter (~12 inches). When Intel first began making chips, the company printed circuits on 2-inch (50mm) wafers. Now the company uses 300mm wafers, resulting in decreased costs per chip. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 4
  • 5. Photo Lithography Exposure – scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch) The photo resist finish is exposed to ultra violet (UV) Exposure – Applying Photo Resist – light. The chemical reaction triggered by that process scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch) step is similar to what happens to film material in a Although usually hundreds of The liquid (blue here) that’s poured film camera the moment you press the shutter microprocessors are built on a single wafer, onto the wafer while it spins is a photo button. The photo resist finish that’s exposed to UV this picture story will only focus on a small resist finish similar as the one known light will become soluble. The exposure is done using piece of a microprocessor from now on – on from film photography. The wafer masks that act like stencils in this process step. When a transistor or parts thereof. A transistor spins during this step to allow very used with UV light, masks create the various circuit acts as a switch, controlling the flow of thin and even application of this photo patterns on each layer of the microprocessor. A lens electrical current in a computer chip. Intel resist layer. (middle) reduces the mask’s image. So what gets researchers have developed transistors so printed on the wafer is typically four times smaller small that about 30 million of them could fit linearly than the mask’s pattern. on the head of a pin. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 5
  • 6. Etching Washing off of Photo Resist – Etching – Removing Photo Resist – scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) The gooey photo resist is completely The photo resist is protecting material dissolved by a solvent. This reveals a After the etching the photo resist is that should not be etched away. Revealed removed and the desired shape becomes pattern of photo resist made by the material will be etched away with mask. visible. chemicals. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 6
  • 7. Ion Implantation Applying Photo Resist – Ion Implantation – Removing Photo Resist – scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) There’s photo resist (blue color) Through a process called ion implantation (one After the ion implantation the photo applied, exposed and exposed photo form of a process called doping), the exposed resist will be removed and the material resist is being washed off before the areas of the silicon wafer are bombarded with that should have been doped (green) next step. The photo resist will protect various chemical impurities called Ions. Ions are has alien atoms implanted now (notice material that should not get ions implanted in the silicon wafer to alter the way slight variations in color) implanted. silicon in these areas conducts electricity. Ions are shot onto the surface of the wafer at very high speed. An electrical field accelerates the ions to a speed of over 300,000 km/h (~185,000 mph) Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 7
  • 8. Metal Deposition Electroplating – Ready Transistor – scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) After Electroplating – scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) The wafers are put into a copper sulphate scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) This transistor is close to being finished. solution as this stage. The copper ions are On the wafer surface the copper ions Three holes have been etched into the deposited onto the transistor thru a settle as a thin layer of copper. insulation layer (magenta color) above process called electroplating. The copper the transistor. These three holes will be ions travel from the positive terminal filled with copper which will make up (anode) to the negative terminal (cathode) the connections to other transistors. which is represented by the wafer. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 8
  • 9. Metal Layers Polishing – scale: transistor level (~50-200nm) The excess material is polished off. Metal Layers – scale: transistor level (six transistors combined ~500nm) Multiple metal layers are created to interconnect (think: wires) in between the various transistors. How these connections have to be “wired” is determined by the architecture and design teams that develop the functionality of the respective processor (e.g. Intel® Core™ i7 Processor ). While computer chips look extremely flat, they may actually have over 20 layers to form complex circuitry. If you look at a magnified view of a chip, you will see an intricate network of circuit lines and transistors that look like a futuristic, multi-layered highway system. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 9
  • 10. Wafer Sort Test / Slicing Wafer Sort Test – Wafer Slicing – scale: die level (~10mm / ~0.5 inch) Discarding faulty Dies – scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch) This fraction of a ready wafer is being scale: wafer level (~300mm / 12 inch) The wafer is cut into pieces (called dies). put to a first functionality test. In this The dies that responded with the right stage test patterns are fed into every answer to the test pattern will be put single chip and the response from the forward for the next step (packaging). chip monitored and compared to “the right answer”. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 10
  • 11. Packaging Packaging – Individual Die – Processor – scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch) scale: die level (~10mm / ~0.5 inch) scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch) The substrate, the die and the This is an individual die which has been Completed processor (Intel® Core™ i7 heatspreader are put together to form a cut out in the previous step (slicing). The Processor in this case). A microprocessor completed processor. The green substrate die shown here is a die of an Intel® Core™ is the most complex manufactured builds the electrical and mechanical i7 Processor . product on earth. In fact, it takes interface for the processor to interact with hundreds of steps – only the most the rest of the PC system. The silver important ones have been visualized in heatspreader is a thermal interface where this picture story - in the world's cleanest a cooling solution will be put on to. This will environment (a microprocessor fab) to keep the processor cool during operation. make microprocessors. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 11
  • 12. Class Testing / Completed Processor Class Testing – Binning – scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch) scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch) Retail Package – During this final test the processors will Based on the test result of class testing scale: package level (~20mm / ~1 inch) be tested for their key characteristics processors with the same capabilities are The readily manufactured and tested (among the tested characteristics are put into the same transporting trays. processors (again Intel® Core™ i7 power dissipation and maximum Processor is shown here) either go to frequency). system manufacturers in trays or into retail stores in a box such as that shown here. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 12
  • 13. Copyright © 2009, Intel Corporation. All rights reserved. Intel, Intel logo and Intel Core are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. 13