Human reproduction and development

Human Reproduction and Development ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Female Reproductive Anatomy ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Prepuce (Rectum) Cervix Vagina Bartholin’s gland Vaginal opening Ovary Oviduct Labia majora Labia minora (Urinary bladder) (Pubic bone) Uterus Urethra Shaft Glans Clitoris Figure 46.9

Vagina Uterus Cervix Ovaries Oviduct Uterine wall Endometrium Follicles Corpus luteum

Ovaries ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

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Oviducts and Uterus ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Male Reproductive Anatomy ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],Figure 46.10 Erectile tissue of penis Prostate gland (Urinary bladder) Bulbourethral gland Vas deferens Epididymis Testis Seminal vesicle (behind bladder) Urethra Scrotum Glans penis

Seminal vesicle (Rectum) Vas deferens Ejaculatory duct Prostate gland Bulbourethral gland (Urinary bladder) (Pubic bone) Erectile tissue of penis Urethra Glans penis Prepuce Vas deferens Epididymis Testis Scrotum

Testes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Ducts ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Glands ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],Ovary Primary germ cell in embryo Differentiation Oogonium Oogonium in ovary Mitotic division Primary oocyte, arrested in prophase of meiosis I (present at birth) Completion of meiosis I and onset of meiosis II Primary oocyte within follicle Secondary oocyte, arrested at meta- phase of meiosis II First polar body Ovulation Entry of sperm triggers completion of meiosis II Ovum Growing follicle Mature follicle Ruptured follicle Ovulated secondary oocyte Corpus luteum Degenerating corpus luteum 2 n 2 n n n n n Figure 46.11

[object Object],Epididymis Seminiferous tubule Testis Cross section of seminiferous tubule Sertoli cell nucleus Lumen of Seminiferous tubule Spermatogonium Primary spermatocyte (in prophase of meiosis I) Secondary spermatocyte Early spermatids Spermatids (at two stages of differentiation) Differentiation (Sertoli cells provide nutrients) Meiosis II Meiosis I completed Mitotic division, producing large numbers of spermatogonia Sperm cells Acrosome Nucleus Mitochondria Neck Tail Plasma membrane Head Midpiece 2 n 2 n n n n n n n n n n n Figure 46.12 Differentiation and onset of meiosis I

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[object Object],Figure 46.13a–e Control by hypothalamus Inhibited by combination of estrogen and progesterone Stimulated by high levels of estrogen Inhibited by low levels of estrogen Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary GnRH FSH LH Pituitary gonadotropins in blood LH FSH FSH and LH stimulate follicle to grow LH surge triggers ovulation Ovarian cycle Growing follicle Mature follicle Corpus luteum Degenerating corpus luteum Estrogen secreted by growing follicle in increasing amounts Progesterone and estrogen secreted by corpus luteum Follicular phase Luteal phase Ovulation Ovarian hormones in blood Peak causes LH surge Estrogen Progesterone Estrogen level very low Progesterone and estrogen promote thickening of endometrium Uterine (menstrual) cycle ,[object Object],Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase 0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28 Days 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 3 6 7 8 4 5 2 10 9

The Ovarian Cycle ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Menopause ,[object Object],[object Object]

Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System ,[object Object],[object Object]

Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 46.15a, b Ovary Uterus Endometrium From ovulation to implantation Endometrium Inner cell mass Cavity Blastocyst Trophoblast (a) Implantation of blastocyst (b) Ovulation releases a secondary oocyte, which enters the oviduct. 1 Fertilization occurs. A sperm enters the oocyte; meiosis of the oocyte finishes; and the nuclei of the ovum and sperm fuse, producing a zygote. 2 Cleavage (cell division) begins in the oviduct as the embryo is moved toward the uterus by peristalsis and the movements of cilia. 3 Cleavage continues. By the time the embryo reaches the uterus, it is a ball of cells. It floats in the uterus for several days, nourished by endometrial secretions. It becomes a blastocyst. 4 The blastocyst implants in the endometrium about 7 days after conception. 5

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[object Object],[object Object],Placenta Umbilical cord Chorionic villus containing fetal capillaries Maternal blood pools Uterus Fetal arteriole Fetal venule Umbilical cord Maternal portion of placenta Fetal portion of placenta (chorion) Umbilical arteries Umbilical vein Maternal arteries Maternal veins Figure 46.16

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 46.17a–c (a) 5 weeks. Limb buds, eyes, the heart, the liver, and rudiments of all other organs have started to develop in the embryo, which is only about 1 cm long. (b) 14 weeks. Growth and development of the offspring, now called a fetus, continue during the second trimester. This fetus is about 6 cm long. (c) 20 weeks. By the end of the second trimester (at 24 weeks), the fetus grows to about 30 cm in length.

Second Trimester ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Third Trimester ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Estrogen Oxytocin from ovaries from fetus and mother's posterior pituitary Induces oxytocin receptors on uterus Stimulates uterus to contract Stimulates placenta to make Prostaglandins Stimulate more contractions of uterus Positive feedback Figure 46.18

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 46.19 Placenta Umbilical cord Uterus Cervix Dilation of the cervix Expulsion: delivery of the infant Uterus Placenta (detaching) Umbilical cord Delivery of the placenta 1 2 3

[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Figure 46.21 Head Body Head Body

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 47.1 1 mm

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 47.2

Fertilization ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

The Acrosomal Reaction ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],Sperm nucleus Sperm plasma membrane Hydrolytic enzymes Cortical granule Cortical granule membrane EGG CYTOPLASM Basal body (centriole) Sperm head Acrosomal process Actin Acrosome Jelly coat Egg plasma membrane Vitelline layer Fused plasma membranes Perivitelline space Fertilization envelope Cortical reaction. Fusion of the gamete membranes triggers an increase of Ca 2+ in the egg’s cytosol, causing cortical granules in the egg to fuse with the plasma membrane and discharge their contents. This leads to swelling of the perivitelline space, hardening of the vitelline layer, and clipping of sperm-binding receptors. The resulting fertilization envelope is the slow block to polyspermy. 5 Contact and fusion of sperm and egg membranes. A hole is made in the vitelline layer, allowing contact and fusion of the gamete plasma membranes. The membrane becomes depolarized, resulting in the fast block to polyspermy. 3 Acrosomal reaction. Hydrolytic enzymes released from the acrosome make a hole in the jelly coat, while growing actin filaments form the acrosomal process. This structure protrudes from the sperm head and penetrates the jelly coat, binding to receptors in the egg cell membrane that extend through the vitelline layer. 2 Contact. The sperm cell contacts the egg’s jelly coat, triggering exocytosis from the sperm’s acrosome. 1 Sperm-binding receptors Entry of sperm nucleus. 4 Figure 47.3

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The Cortical Reaction ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 47.4 A fluorescent dye that glows when it binds free Ca 2+ was injected into unfertilized sea urchin eggs. After sea urchin sperm were added, researchers observed the eggs in a fluorescence microscope. EXPERIMENT RESULTS The release of Ca 2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum into the cytosol at the site of sperm entry triggers the release of more and more Ca 2+ in a wave that spreads to the other side of the cell. The entire process takes about 30 seconds. CONCLUSION 30 sec 20 sec 10 sec after fertilization 1 sec before fertilization Point of sperm entry Spreading wave of calcium ions 500 m

Activation of the Egg ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Fertilization in Mammals ,[object Object],[object Object],Figure 47.6 Sperm nucleus Acrosomal vesicle Egg plasma membrane Zona pellucida Sperm basal body Cortical granules Follicle cell EGG CYTOPLASM The sperm migrates through the coat of follicle cells and binds to receptor molecules in the zona pellucida of the egg. (Receptor molecules are not shown here.) 1 This binding induces the acrosomal reaction, in which the sperm releases hydrolytic enzymes into the zona pellucida. 2 Breakdown of the zona pellucida by these enzymes allows the sperm to reach the plasma membrane of the egg. Membrane proteins of the sperm bind to receptors on the egg membrane, and the two membranes fuse. 3 The nucleus and other components of the sperm cell enter the egg. 4 Enzymes released during the cortical reaction harden the zona pellucida, which now functions as a block to polyspermy. 5

Cleavage ,[object Object],[object Object]

[object Object],[object Object],Figure 47.7a–d Fertilized egg. Shown here is the zygote shortly before the first cleavage division, surrounded by the fertilization envelope. The nucleus is visible in the center. (a) Four-cell stage. Remnants of the mitotic spindle can be seen between the two cells that have just completed the second cleavage division. (b) Morula. After further cleavage divisions, the embryo is a multicellular ball that is still surrounded by the fertilization envelope. The blastocoel cavity has begun to form. (c) Blastula. A single layer of cells surrounds a large blastocoel cavity. Although not visible here, the fertilization envelope is still present; the embryo will soon hatch from it and begin swimming. (d)

Gastrulation ,[object Object],[object Object]

Human reproduction and development

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Human reproduction and development