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2. What is a Reading Model?
 IntroductionIntroduction
In the last 40 years reading researchers have been
studying the link between the reading process (what
goes on in the brain) and how to teach reading.
Depending on their interpretation of the reading
process, they have developed a model of reading.

3.  Definition
A reading model is a graphic attempt “to depict how
an individual perceives a word, processes a clause,
and comprehends a text.” (Singer and Ruddell 1985)
 Kinds
Here are some kinds of reading models.
Although there are many models of reading, reading
researchers tend to classify them into three kinds.

4. A. Top-downA. Top-down
 Introduction
Top-down reading models suggest that processing of a
text begins in the mind of the readers with:
*meaning-driven processes, or
*an assumption about the meaning of a text.
From this perspective, readers identify letters and
words only to confirm their assumptions about the
meaning of the text. (Dechant 1991)

5.  Proponents
Here are some proponents of the top-down reading
model:
 Goodman, K. 1985
 Smith, F. 1994
The proponents generally agree that :
*comprehension is the basis for decoding skills, not a
singular result, and
*meaning is brought to print, not derived from print.

6.  Definition
A top-down reading model is a reading model that:
*emphasizes what the reader brings to the text
*says reading is driven by meaning, and
*proceeds from whole to part.
Also known as:
*inside-out model
*concept-driven model
*whole to part model

7.  Discussion
Here are the views of some researchers about the top-down
reading model:
Frank Smith, a journalist turned reading researcher:
*Reading is not decoding written language to spoken language.
*Reading does not involve the processing of each letter and
each word.
*Reading is a matter of bringing meaning to print, not
extracting meaning from print. (McCormick, T. 1988)

8. Kenneth S. Goodman, reading specialist at the University of
Arizona:
* “...the goal of reading is constructing meaning in response to
text...It requires interactive use of grapho-phonic, syntactic, and
semantic cues to construct meaning.” (Goodman, K. 1981).
* Although Goodman is often referred to as a leading advocate
of the top-down approach, his model by his own admission is
interactive, “...it is one which uses print as input and has
meaning as output. But the reader provides input too, and the
reader, interacting with text, is selective in using just as little of
the cues from text as necessary to construct meaning.” (
Goodman, K. 1981)

9. DID YOU KNOW?DID YOU KNOW?
A widely accepted educational philosophy that
utilizes a top-down approach to reading is called
whole language.

10.  Features
Here are some features of a top-down approach to reading (Gove 1983):
 Readers can comprehend a selection even though they do not recognize each
word.
 Readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify unrecognized
words.
 Reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading rather than mastery
of letters, letter/sound relationships, and words.
 Reading requires the use of meaning activities rather than the mastery of a
series of word-recognition skills.
 The primary focus of instruction should be the reading of sentences,
paragraphs, and whole selections.
 The most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of
information gained through reading.

11. B. Bottom-upB. Bottom-up
 IntroductionIntroduction
A bottom-up reading model emphasizes a single-A bottom-up reading model emphasizes a single-
direction, part-to-whole processing of a text.direction, part-to-whole processing of a text.
In the beginning stages it gives little emphasis to theIn the beginning stages it gives little emphasis to the
influences of the reader's world knowledge,influences of the reader's world knowledge, contextualcontextual
information, and other higher-order processinginformation, and other higher-order processing
strategies. (strategies. (Dechant 1991Dechant 1991).).

12. Definition
A bottom-up reading model is a reading model that
*emphasizes the written or printed text
*says reading is driven by a process that results in
meaning (or, in other words, reading is driven by
text), and
*proceeds from part to whole.
Also known as:
*part to whole model

13.  Proponents
Here are some proponents of the bottom-up reading
model:
Flesch 1955
Gough 1985
LaBerge and Samuels 1985

14.  Discussion
Emerald Dechant:
 “Bottom-up models operate on the principle that the written text is
hierarchically organized (i.e., on the grapho-phonic, phonemic, syllabic,
morphemic, word, and sentence levels) and that the reader first processes
the smallest linguistic unit, gradually compiling the smaller units to decipher
and comprehend the higher units (e.g., sentence syntax).” (Dechant 1991)
Charles Fries:
 The reader must learn to transfer from the auditory signs for language
signals...to a set of visual signs for the same signals. (Fries 1962)
 The reader must learn to automatically respond to the visual patterns. The
cumulative comprehension of the meanings signaled then enable the reader
to supply those portions of the signals which are not in the graphic
representations themselves. (Fries 1962)
 Learning to read...means developing a considerable range of habitual
responses to a specific set of patterns of graphic shapes. (Fries 1962)

15. DID YOU KNOW?DID YOU KNOW?
A widely accepted instructional programinstructional program that
incorporates several bottom-up principles is
the phonic approach to readingphonic approach to reading.

16. Features
Here are some features of a bottom-up approach to
reading:
Bottom-up advocates believe the reader needs to
identify letter features
link these features to recognize letters
combine letters to recognize spelling patterns
link spelling patterns to recognize words, and
then proceed to sentence, paragraph and text-level
processing.

17. C. Interactive
 Introduction
An interactive reading model attempts to combine the
valid insights of bottom-up and top-down models. It
attempts to take into account the strong points of the
bottom-up and top-down models, and tries to avoid the
criticisms leveled against each, making it one of the
most promising approaches to the theory of reading
today. (McCormick, T. 1988)

18.  Definition
An interactive reading model is a reading model that
recognizes the interaction of bottom-up and top-down
processes simultaneously throughout the reading
process.
 Proponents
Here are some proponents of the interactive reading
model:
 Rumelhart, D. 1985
 Barr, Sadow, and Blachowicz 1990
 Ruddell and Speaker 1985

19. Discussion
Here are the views of some researchers about the interactive
reading model:
Emerald Dechant:
 The interactive model suggests that the reader constructs
meaning by the selective use of information from all sources
of meaning (graphemic, phonemic, morphemic, syntax,
semantics) without adherence to any one set order. The
reader simultaneously uses all levels of processing even
though one source of meaning can be primary at a given
time. (Dechant 1991)

20.  Kenneth Goodman:
 An interactive model is one which uses print as input and has
meaning as output. But the reader provides input, too, and
the reader, interacting with the text, is selective in using just
as little of the cues from text as necessary to construct
meaning. (Goodman, K. 1981)
 David E. Rumelhart:
 Reading is at once a perceptual and a cognitive process. It is a
process which bridges and blurs these two traditional
distinctions. Moreover, a skilled reader must be able to make
use of sensory, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic
information to accomplish the task. These various sources of
information appear to interact in many complex ways during
the process of reading (Rumelhart, D. 1985).

21. What is Schema Theory?
 Linguists, cognitive psychologists, and psycholinguists have used
the concept of schema (plural: schemata) to understand the
interaction of key factors affecting the comprehension process.
 Simply put, schema theory states that all knowledge is
organized into units. Within these units of knowledge, or
schemata, is stored information.
 A schema, then, is a generalized description or a conceptual
system for understanding knowledge-how knowledge is
represented and how it is used.

22.  Schemas clearly affect our recall of events.
 Schemas also affect our ability to learn things.
 According to this theory, schemata represent knowledge about
concepts: objects and the relationships they have with other
objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions, and
sequences of actions.
 The importance of schema theory to reading comprehension
also lies in how the reader uses schemata. This issue has not yet
been resolved by research, although investigators agree that
some mechanism activates just those schemata most relevant to
the reader's task.

23. Thank YouThank You
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