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Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225
Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Climate Change and Architectural Practice in Nigeria
Oluwasola Feyisara Oni
1. Architectural Technology Department, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria.
2. Department of Architecture, Joseph Ayo Babalola Unive
• doluakingbohungbe@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper deals with Climate change and how it has impacted on the Nigerian Architectural practice. It
discusses the effect of climate change on architectural design as well
meet the social, economic, and environmental needs of the people it serves over time and changing needs. Since
climate is changing and the effect on the built environment can only be reduced and not totally eliminate
is need for Architects and other professionals in the building industry to produce buildings that are sustainable.
While this situation poses a major challenge to the practice of architecture, there arises the need for designers to
combat it through improved building design. The paper concludes by suggesting ways to combat the effect of
climate change through design solutions.
Keywords: climate change, Architectural practice, design solution, sustainable.
1. Introduction
Climate change has become the primary environmental threat of the 21st century. It is now on the global political
agenda as never before. The current concern is based on a number of recent scientific analyses that suggest that
potential climate change effects are at a scale that
change, but equally important, to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring. Science suggests that its
effects are at a scale that adds urgency not only to the efforts to prevent additional
to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring.
Responding to climate change falls into two broad classes of action, mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation of
human-induced climate change refers to measures that may eit
(abatement) or increase terrestrial storage of carbon (sequestration). Although Nigeria, like other developing
countries, is not required under the current global climate change negotiations to take on emissi
commitments, it nevertheless has to adapt to the expected impacts of anticipated climate change. Adaptation
refers to all the responses to climate change that may be used to reduce vulnerability.
Responding to climate change through adaptation
of seeking out opportunities and design actions to reduce the vulnerability of the people to climate change
impacts. Nigeria needs to explore a number of opportunities that exist to build a c
able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions caused by the adverse effects of climate change,
including climate-related hazards and disasters by strengthening its coping or adaptive capacity.
Architects over the years have reflected on the importance of having good quality environment. The quest for
environmental values in architecture, for a harmonious balance between man and his environment is not new
approach. It is so much that for centuries, mankind ad
vernacular architecture. However, since the industrial revolution, this has been increasingly abandoned in favour
of universal architecture, which in many parts of the world, Nigeria included has led to
buildings. The effects of global warming and Climate Change are increasingly becoming apparent, notably in
Nigeria is the serious famine we are witnessing today, diminishing rains, drying rivers and power rationing just
to mention but a few. Faced with these dangers, the public and policymakers alike must become conscious of the
need to protect our environment. One response to these issues is to approach architecture in a way that respects
the environment.
The aim of this paper is to identify how climate change has influenced the practice of Architecture in Nigeria.
The objectives are to:
i. identify the causes of climate change in Nigeria;
ii. determine the effects of Climate change on the Nigerian Environment;
iii. examine how has Climate Change
iv. determine the role of the Architect in combating the effects of climate change.
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
1
Climate Change and Architectural Practice in Nigeria
Oluwasola Feyisara Oni1
& Davies Olugbenga Akingbohungbe
Architectural Technology Department, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Department of Architecture, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji Arakeji, Osun State, Nigeria.
doluakingbohungbe@gmail.com
his paper deals with Climate change and how it has impacted on the Nigerian Architectural practice. It
discusses the effect of climate change on architectural design as well as how Architects design buildings that
meet the social, economic, and environmental needs of the people it serves over time and changing needs. Since
climate is changing and the effect on the built environment can only be reduced and not totally eliminate
is need for Architects and other professionals in the building industry to produce buildings that are sustainable.
While this situation poses a major challenge to the practice of architecture, there arises the need for designers to
gh improved building design. The paper concludes by suggesting ways to combat the effect of
climate change through design solutions.
climate change, Architectural practice, design solution, sustainable.
e the primary environmental threat of the 21st century. It is now on the global political
agenda as never before. The current concern is based on a number of recent scientific analyses that suggest that
potential climate change effects are at a scale that adds urgency not only to the efforts to prevent additional
change, but equally important, to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring. Science suggests that its
effects are at a scale that adds urgency not only to the efforts to prevent additional change, but equally important,
to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring.
Responding to climate change falls into two broad classes of action, mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation of
induced climate change refers to measures that may either reduce the increase in greenhouse emissions
(abatement) or increase terrestrial storage of carbon (sequestration). Although Nigeria, like other developing
countries, is not required under the current global climate change negotiations to take on emissi
commitments, it nevertheless has to adapt to the expected impacts of anticipated climate change. Adaptation
refers to all the responses to climate change that may be used to reduce vulnerability.
Responding to climate change through adaptation initiatives will require Nigeria to engage in concerted efforts
of seeking out opportunities and design actions to reduce the vulnerability of the people to climate change
impacts. Nigeria needs to explore a number of opportunities that exist to build a climate-
able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions caused by the adverse effects of climate change,
related hazards and disasters by strengthening its coping or adaptive capacity.
er the years have reflected on the importance of having good quality environment. The quest for
environmental values in architecture, for a harmonious balance between man and his environment is not new
approach. It is so much that for centuries, mankind adopted this approach out of necessity, particularly in
vernacular architecture. However, since the industrial revolution, this has been increasingly abandoned in favour
of universal architecture, which in many parts of the world, Nigeria included has led to
buildings. The effects of global warming and Climate Change are increasingly becoming apparent, notably in
Nigeria is the serious famine we are witnessing today, diminishing rains, drying rivers and power rationing just
ew. Faced with these dangers, the public and policymakers alike must become conscious of the
need to protect our environment. One response to these issues is to approach architecture in a way that respects
ify how climate change has influenced the practice of Architecture in Nigeria.
identify the causes of climate change in Nigeria;
determine the effects of Climate change on the Nigerian Environment;
examine how has Climate Change has affected architectural practice in Nigeria;
determine the role of the Architect in combating the effects of climate change.
www.iiste.org
Climate Change and Architectural Practice in Nigeria
& Davies Olugbenga Akingbohungbe2*
Architectural Technology Department, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria.
rsity, Ikeji Arakeji, Osun State, Nigeria.
his paper deals with Climate change and how it has impacted on the Nigerian Architectural practice. It
as how Architects design buildings that
meet the social, economic, and environmental needs of the people it serves over time and changing needs. Since
climate is changing and the effect on the built environment can only be reduced and not totally eliminated, there
is need for Architects and other professionals in the building industry to produce buildings that are sustainable.
While this situation poses a major challenge to the practice of architecture, there arises the need for designers to
gh improved building design. The paper concludes by suggesting ways to combat the effect of
e the primary environmental threat of the 21st century. It is now on the global political
agenda as never before. The current concern is based on a number of recent scientific analyses that suggest that
adds urgency not only to the efforts to prevent additional
change, but equally important, to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring. Science suggests that its
change, but equally important,
Responding to climate change falls into two broad classes of action, mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation of
her reduce the increase in greenhouse emissions
(abatement) or increase terrestrial storage of carbon (sequestration). Although Nigeria, like other developing
countries, is not required under the current global climate change negotiations to take on emission reduction
commitments, it nevertheless has to adapt to the expected impacts of anticipated climate change. Adaptation
initiatives will require Nigeria to engage in concerted efforts
of seeking out opportunities and design actions to reduce the vulnerability of the people to climate change
-resilient society that is
able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions caused by the adverse effects of climate change,
related hazards and disasters by strengthening its coping or adaptive capacity.
er the years have reflected on the importance of having good quality environment. The quest for
environmental values in architecture, for a harmonious balance between man and his environment is not new
opted this approach out of necessity, particularly in
vernacular architecture. However, since the industrial revolution, this has been increasingly abandoned in favour
of universal architecture, which in many parts of the world, Nigeria included has led to energy intensive
buildings. The effects of global warming and Climate Change are increasingly becoming apparent, notably in
Nigeria is the serious famine we are witnessing today, diminishing rains, drying rivers and power rationing just
ew. Faced with these dangers, the public and policymakers alike must become conscious of the
need to protect our environment. One response to these issues is to approach architecture in a way that respects
ify how climate change has influenced the practice of Architecture in Nigeria.
has affected architectural practice in Nigeria;
determine the role of the Architect in combating the effects of climate change.
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225
Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the environment and also result from human acti
abundant greenhouse gas is water vapour, which reaches the atmosphere through evaporation from oceans, lakes,
and rivers. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is not directly affected by human activities.
• Water Vapour
Water vapour is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, accounting for about 60 to 70 per cent of
the natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not have a significant direct impact on water vapour levels in the
atmosphere. However, as human activities incr
atmosphere (producing warmer temperatures on earth), the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as
water evaporation from plants, increase and raise the amount of water vapour in the atmosp
• Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide constantly circulates in the environment through a variety of natural processes known as the
carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the decay of plant and animal matter both release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. In respiration, animals break down food to release the energy required to build and maintain cellular
activity. A by-product of respiration is the formation of carbon dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into the
environment. Oceans, lakes, and rivers absorb
plants collect carbon dioxide and use it to make their own food; in the process incorporating carbon into new
plant tissue and releasing oxygen to the environment as a by
buildings, power automobiles, and fuel electricity
carbon, such as the fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas; wood or wood products; and some solid wastes. When
these products are burned, they release carbon dioxide into the air. In addition, humans cut down huge tracts of
trees for lumber or to clear land for farming or building. This process, known as deforestation, can both release
the carbon stored in trees and significantly
• Methane
Many natural processes produce methane, also known as natural gas. Decomposition of carbon
substances found in oxygen-free environments, such as wastes in landfills, release
such as cattle and sheep belch methane into the air as a by
damp soils, such as rice fields, produce methane when they break down organic matter. Methane is also emitted
during coal mining and the production and transport of other fossil fuels. Atmospheric concentrations of methane
are far less than carbon dioxide, and methane only stays in the atmosphere for a decade or so. But methane is an
extremely effective heat-trapping ga
• Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide is released by the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile exhaust is a large source of this gas. In
addition, many farmers use nitrogen
fertilizers break down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide into the air. Ploughing fields also releases nitrous oxide.
Nitrous oxide traps heat about 300 times more effectively than carbon dioxide and can stay in the atmosphere for
a century.
• Ozone
Ozone is both a natural and human-
layer and shields life on Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, which can cause cancer and other
damage to plants and animals. However, ozone in the lower atm
of air pollution) and is considered a greenhouse gas. Unlike other greenhouse gases which are well
throughout the atmosphere, ozone in the lower atmosphere tends to be limited to industrialised regions.
• Synthetic Chemicals
Manufacturing processes use or generate many synthetic chemicals that are powerful greenhouse gases.
Although these gases are produced in relatively small quantities, they trap hundreds to thousands of times more
heat in the atmosphere than an equal amount of carbon dioxide does. In addition, their chemical bonds make
them exceptionally long lived in the environment.
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
2
Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the environment and also result from human activities. By far the most
abundant greenhouse gas is water vapour, which reaches the atmosphere through evaporation from oceans, lakes,
and rivers. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is not directly affected by human activities.
vapour is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, accounting for about 60 to 70 per cent of
the natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not have a significant direct impact on water vapour levels in the
atmosphere. However, as human activities increase the concentration of other greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere (producing warmer temperatures on earth), the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as
water evaporation from plants, increase and raise the amount of water vapour in the atmosp
Carbon dioxide constantly circulates in the environment through a variety of natural processes known as the
carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the decay of plant and animal matter both release carbon dioxide into the
espiration, animals break down food to release the energy required to build and maintain cellular
product of respiration is the formation of carbon dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into the
environment. Oceans, lakes, and rivers absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Through photosynthesis,
plants collect carbon dioxide and use it to make their own food; in the process incorporating carbon into new
plant tissue and releasing oxygen to the environment as a by-product. In order to pro
buildings, power automobiles, and fuel electricity-producing power plants, humans burn objects that contain
carbon, such as the fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas; wood or wood products; and some solid wastes. When
are burned, they release carbon dioxide into the air. In addition, humans cut down huge tracts of
trees for lumber or to clear land for farming or building. This process, known as deforestation, can both release
the carbon stored in trees and significantly reduce the number of trees available to absorb carbon dioxide.
Many natural processes produce methane, also known as natural gas. Decomposition of carbon
free environments, such as wastes in landfills, release methane. Ruminating animals
such as cattle and sheep belch methane into the air as a by- product of digestion. Microorganisms that live in
damp soils, such as rice fields, produce methane when they break down organic matter. Methane is also emitted
coal mining and the production and transport of other fossil fuels. Atmospheric concentrations of methane
are far less than carbon dioxide, and methane only stays in the atmosphere for a decade or so. But methane is an
trapping gas.
Nitrous oxide is released by the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile exhaust is a large source of this gas. In
addition, many farmers use nitrogen-containing fertilizers to provide nutrients to their crops. When these
down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide into the air. Ploughing fields also releases nitrous oxide.
Nitrous oxide traps heat about 300 times more effectively than carbon dioxide and can stay in the atmosphere for
made greenhouse gas. Ozone in the upper atmosphere is known as the ozone
layer and shields life on Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, which can cause cancer and other
damage to plants and animals. However, ozone in the lower atmosphere is a component of smog (a severe type
of air pollution) and is considered a greenhouse gas. Unlike other greenhouse gases which are well
throughout the atmosphere, ozone in the lower atmosphere tends to be limited to industrialised regions.
Manufacturing processes use or generate many synthetic chemicals that are powerful greenhouse gases.
Although these gases are produced in relatively small quantities, they trap hundreds to thousands of times more
han an equal amount of carbon dioxide does. In addition, their chemical bonds make
them exceptionally long lived in the environment.
www.iiste.org
vities. By far the most
abundant greenhouse gas is water vapour, which reaches the atmosphere through evaporation from oceans, lakes,
and rivers. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is not directly affected by human activities.
vapour is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, accounting for about 60 to 70 per cent of
the natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not have a significant direct impact on water vapour levels in the
ease the concentration of other greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere (producing warmer temperatures on earth), the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as
water evaporation from plants, increase and raise the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide constantly circulates in the environment through a variety of natural processes known as the
carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the decay of plant and animal matter both release carbon dioxide into the
espiration, animals break down food to release the energy required to build and maintain cellular
product of respiration is the formation of carbon dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into the
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Through photosynthesis,
plants collect carbon dioxide and use it to make their own food; in the process incorporating carbon into new
product. In order to provide energy to heat
producing power plants, humans burn objects that contain
carbon, such as the fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas; wood or wood products; and some solid wastes. When
are burned, they release carbon dioxide into the air. In addition, humans cut down huge tracts of
trees for lumber or to clear land for farming or building. This process, known as deforestation, can both release
reduce the number of trees available to absorb carbon dioxide.
Many natural processes produce methane, also known as natural gas. Decomposition of carbon-containing
methane. Ruminating animals
product of digestion. Microorganisms that live in
damp soils, such as rice fields, produce methane when they break down organic matter. Methane is also emitted
coal mining and the production and transport of other fossil fuels. Atmospheric concentrations of methane
are far less than carbon dioxide, and methane only stays in the atmosphere for a decade or so. But methane is an
Nitrous oxide is released by the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile exhaust is a large source of this gas. In
containing fertilizers to provide nutrients to their crops. When these
down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide into the air. Ploughing fields also releases nitrous oxide.
Nitrous oxide traps heat about 300 times more effectively than carbon dioxide and can stay in the atmosphere for
made greenhouse gas. Ozone in the upper atmosphere is known as the ozone
layer and shields life on Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, which can cause cancer and other
osphere is a component of smog (a severe type
of air pollution) and is considered a greenhouse gas. Unlike other greenhouse gases which are well-mixed
throughout the atmosphere, ozone in the lower atmosphere tends to be limited to industrialised regions.
Manufacturing processes use or generate many synthetic chemicals that are powerful greenhouse gases.
Although these gases are produced in relatively small quantities, they trap hundreds to thousands of times more
han an equal amount of carbon dioxide does. In addition, their chemical bonds make
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225
Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
• Chloro-fluoro-Carbons
Human-made greenhouse gases include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), a family of chlorine
were widely used in the 20th
century as refrigerants, aerosol spray propellants, and cleaning agents. Scientific
studies showed that the chlorine released by CFCs into the upper atmosphere destroys the ozone layer. As a
result, CFCs are being phased out of production under a 1987 international treaty, the Montréal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. CFCs were mostly banned in industrialised nations beginning in 1996
and will be phased out in developing countries after 2010. New chemic
but they are also potent greenhouse gases. The substitutes include hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro
fluorocarbons (HFCs), and per fluorocarbons (PFCs).
• Aerosols
Fuel combustion, and to a lesser extent, agric
tiny solid and liquid particles called aerosols that remain suspended in the atmosphere. Although aerosols are not
considered greenhouse gases, they do affect global warming in several ways.
Diesel engines and some types of biomass burning produce black aerosols such as soot, which absorb the sun’s
energy and therefore contribute to warming. Conversely, coal
sulphate aerosols, which are light-cultured aerosols that reflect incoming solar energy back to space. In this way,
they have a cooling effect. Natural aerosols that also have a cooling effect are produced during volcanic
eruptions and the evaporation of seawater. Aerosol particles also hav
“seeds” for the condensation of water vapour into cloud masses. In general, the amount of solar energy reflected
back to space is greater on cloudy days.
Overall, aerosols may roughly offset the net warming infl
through their direct cooling effect and half through their indirect cooling effect. However, considerable certainty
in aerosol processes means that their cooling influence could be much larger or much s
of the least understood factors in climate change and their effects are still being debated. Scientists are more
certain, however, about the net effect of all greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions, which is estimated to be
roughly equal to the warming influence of carbon dioxide alone.
2.2 Impact of the Built Environment on Climate Change
According to the IPCC, buildings contribute about 31% of global CO2 emissions. This includes the emissions
created during the construction and use
environment throws up a number of climate change questions bothering on how resources and energy are
consumed, land developed, buildings and infrastructure constructed as well as services sup
connected.
It is estimated that the cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. CO2
emissions are produced through heating, cooling and powering the built environment. These emissions have
been rising by almost 2% per year, thanks largely to bigger homes with more energy consuming devices in them.
Additional to warming due to greenhouse gases, the built environment has an influence on the albedo effect.
Materials such as concrete and asphalt absorb greater
leads to localized warming, known as urban heat islands. In large cities there can be as much as a 5
between the city centre and the rural environs. (Vidal , 2007)
3.0 The Nigerian Climate
Climate, that is macro - and micro
atmosphere. These are modified by topographic conditions of the earth and by the changes which civilization has
made to its surface. Micro-climate is found in a more limited space like a room, a street, town or small landscape,
while macro-climate is that found in a much larger space such as over a country, a continent or on oceans.
Climatic conditions include weather observations over the longest
only of temperatures and precipitation values, but also humidity, cloud, wind, air pressure and solar radiation.
The Nigerian macro-climate may be classified into four zones according to Komolafe (1988) namely:
(i) Hot - dry,
(ii) Temperate dry
(iii) Hot humid and
(iv) Warm humid.
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
3
made greenhouse gases include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), a family of chlorine
century as refrigerants, aerosol spray propellants, and cleaning agents. Scientific
studies showed that the chlorine released by CFCs into the upper atmosphere destroys the ozone layer. As a
out of production under a 1987 international treaty, the Montréal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. CFCs were mostly banned in industrialised nations beginning in 1996
and will be phased out in developing countries after 2010. New chemicals have been developed to replace CFCs,
but they are also potent greenhouse gases. The substitutes include hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro
fluorocarbons (HFCs), and per fluorocarbons (PFCs).
Fuel combustion, and to a lesser extent, agricultural and industrial processes, produce not only gases but also
tiny solid and liquid particles called aerosols that remain suspended in the atmosphere. Although aerosols are not
considered greenhouse gases, they do affect global warming in several ways.
Diesel engines and some types of biomass burning produce black aerosols such as soot, which absorb the sun’s
energy and therefore contribute to warming. Conversely, coal-fired power plants burning high
cultured aerosols that reflect incoming solar energy back to space. In this way,
they have a cooling effect. Natural aerosols that also have a cooling effect are produced during volcanic
eruptions and the evaporation of seawater. Aerosol particles also have an indirect cooling influence by acting as
“seeds” for the condensation of water vapour into cloud masses. In general, the amount of solar energy reflected
back to space is greater on cloudy days.
Overall, aerosols may roughly offset the net warming influence of noncarbonated dioxide greenhouse gases, half
through their direct cooling effect and half through their indirect cooling effect. However, considerable certainty
in aerosol processes means that their cooling influence could be much larger or much smaller. Aerosols are one
of the least understood factors in climate change and their effects are still being debated. Scientists are more
certain, however, about the net effect of all greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions, which is estimated to be
qual to the warming influence of carbon dioxide alone.
Impact of the Built Environment on Climate Change
According to the IPCC, buildings contribute about 31% of global CO2 emissions. This includes the emissions
created during the construction and use of buildings, from heating, cooling and powering them. The built
environment throws up a number of climate change questions bothering on how resources and energy are
consumed, land developed, buildings and infrastructure constructed as well as services sup
It is estimated that the cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. CO2
emissions are produced through heating, cooling and powering the built environment. These emissions have
most 2% per year, thanks largely to bigger homes with more energy consuming devices in them.
Additional to warming due to greenhouse gases, the built environment has an influence on the albedo effect.
Materials such as concrete and asphalt absorb greater amounts of heat than natural surfaces. This absorption
leads to localized warming, known as urban heat islands. In large cities there can be as much as a 5
between the city centre and the rural environs. (Vidal , 2007)
and micro - climate, is the sum of characteristic meteorological phenomena in the
atmosphere. These are modified by topographic conditions of the earth and by the changes which civilization has
is found in a more limited space like a room, a street, town or small landscape,
climate is that found in a much larger space such as over a country, a continent or on oceans.
Climatic conditions include weather observations over the longest possible period of time, and must consist not
only of temperatures and precipitation values, but also humidity, cloud, wind, air pressure and solar radiation.
climate may be classified into four zones according to Komolafe (1988) namely:
www.iiste.org
made greenhouse gases include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), a family of chlorine-containing gases that
century as refrigerants, aerosol spray propellants, and cleaning agents. Scientific
studies showed that the chlorine released by CFCs into the upper atmosphere destroys the ozone layer. As a
out of production under a 1987 international treaty, the Montréal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. CFCs were mostly banned in industrialised nations beginning in 1996
als have been developed to replace CFCs,
but they are also potent greenhouse gases. The substitutes include hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro
ultural and industrial processes, produce not only gases but also
tiny solid and liquid particles called aerosols that remain suspended in the atmosphere. Although aerosols are not
Diesel engines and some types of biomass burning produce black aerosols such as soot, which absorb the sun’s
fired power plants burning high-sulphur coal emit
cultured aerosols that reflect incoming solar energy back to space. In this way,
they have a cooling effect. Natural aerosols that also have a cooling effect are produced during volcanic
e an indirect cooling influence by acting as
“seeds” for the condensation of water vapour into cloud masses. In general, the amount of solar energy reflected
uence of noncarbonated dioxide greenhouse gases, half
through their direct cooling effect and half through their indirect cooling effect. However, considerable certainty
maller. Aerosols are one
of the least understood factors in climate change and their effects are still being debated. Scientists are more
certain, however, about the net effect of all greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions, which is estimated to be
According to the IPCC, buildings contribute about 31% of global CO2 emissions. This includes the emissions
of buildings, from heating, cooling and powering them. The built
environment throws up a number of climate change questions bothering on how resources and energy are
consumed, land developed, buildings and infrastructure constructed as well as services supplied and places
It is estimated that the cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. CO2
emissions are produced through heating, cooling and powering the built environment. These emissions have
most 2% per year, thanks largely to bigger homes with more energy consuming devices in them.
Additional to warming due to greenhouse gases, the built environment has an influence on the albedo effect.
amounts of heat than natural surfaces. This absorption
leads to localized warming, known as urban heat islands. In large cities there can be as much as a 5o
C difference
climate, is the sum of characteristic meteorological phenomena in the
atmosphere. These are modified by topographic conditions of the earth and by the changes which civilization has
is found in a more limited space like a room, a street, town or small landscape,
climate is that found in a much larger space such as over a country, a continent or on oceans.
possible period of time, and must consist not
only of temperatures and precipitation values, but also humidity, cloud, wind, air pressure and solar radiation.
climate may be classified into four zones according to Komolafe (1988) namely:
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225
Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
3.1 Thermal Comfort Conditions
For body comfort, the most important factor which affects the absence of discomfort in an enclosed space is the
correct combinations of:
• The air temperature;
• The humidity;
• The radiation from or to surrounding surfaces;
• The movement of air and its freshness or stuffiness.
3.2 Site Planning for Comfort
The following fundamental rules for site orientations and solar control are generally valid:
• Open facades should face north or south as much as possible to avoid direct radiation from a low sun
and the consequent intensive concentration of heat.
• In hot - dry or arid zones, screening of openings in mostly closed wall surfaces is indispensable.
• In hot - humid zones it is necessary to screen all openings and in some circumstances, complete
facades against direct and indirect radiation from overcast skies.
A good design for thermal comfort in the Nigerian climate should observe the following conside
• Orientation of the buildings;
• Cross ventilation within the habitable rooms;
• Solar control and appropriate shading techniques;
• Use of appropriate properties of materials like heat storage and insulation;
• Appropriate and correct use of vegetati
• Air humidification or evaporative cooling.
3.3 Site Orientation of Buildings
Correct site orientation of buildings for thermal efficiency must pay attention to:
• Solar radiation and the resultant heat load;
• Direction and force of the wind and
• The topography of the site.
3.4 Solar Control and Shading Devices
In the tropics, protection from the sun is always necessary. This is because the intensity, duration and the angle
of incidence of solar radiation to a particular surface are the main dete
necessary for comfort. These factors affect the solar control measures such as:
• The time of the day and the extent of screening required and
• The calculation of the type, depth and separation of the screening elements re
Except for other aesthetic reasons, there is little or no justification for using the same screening devices on all the
four facades of a building. Screening is most effective if separately calculated to suit the solar angle of incidence
and the requirements for each facade. The capital cost involved in providing appropriate and suitable sun
shading devices helps to minimize the heat load and consequently:
• reduce the cost of air conditioning,
• provide cooler indoor environment,
• ensure greater thermal comfort of the occupants and
• increase productive efforts (Odeleye, 1989 ).
3.5 Effects of Climate on Building Elements
Climatic factors do not affect people's comfort alone; they can also impair the safety of buildings and lead to
building damage and premature fatigue of building materials, according to Komolafe (1988). In the tropics, for
example, factors such as intense solar radiation, high humidity and condensation, dust and sandstorms and the
salt content of the air affect building material
For walling materials, the comfort implication of heat storage capacity, where they are needed, are secondary to
those of privacy, stability, protection and security against house
walling and thin mud walls, adobe or wattle and daub are commonly used in various climatic zones.
The picture is not better with respect to roofing materials in common use. For example, galvanized iron sheet
absorbs 65% of solar radiation which increases to 80% when it gets old
roofing sheets absorb as high as 61% of heat, which increases to 83% when old and dirty (Komolafe, 1988).
Generally, the problem is not what is thermally desirable and efficient, but what is readily available and
economically affordable to the people
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
4
For body comfort, the most important factor which affects the absence of discomfort in an enclosed space is the
The radiation from or to surrounding surfaces;
The movement of air and its freshness or stuffiness.
The following fundamental rules for site orientations and solar control are generally valid:
Open facades should face north or south as much as possible to avoid direct radiation from a low sun
and the consequent intensive concentration of heat.
dry or arid zones, screening of openings in mostly closed wall surfaces is indispensable.
humid zones it is necessary to screen all openings and in some circumstances, complete
facades against direct and indirect radiation from overcast skies.
A good design for thermal comfort in the Nigerian climate should observe the following conside
Orientation of the buildings;
Cross ventilation within the habitable rooms;
Solar control and appropriate shading techniques;
Use of appropriate properties of materials like heat storage and insulation;
Appropriate and correct use of vegetation and
Air humidification or evaporative cooling.
Site Orientation of Buildings
Correct site orientation of buildings for thermal efficiency must pay attention to:
Solar radiation and the resultant heat load;
Direction and force of the wind and
Solar Control and Shading Devices
In the tropics, protection from the sun is always necessary. This is because the intensity, duration and the angle
of incidence of solar radiation to a particular surface are the main determinants of the design precautions
necessary for comfort. These factors affect the solar control measures such as:
The time of the day and the extent of screening required and
The calculation of the type, depth and separation of the screening elements required.
Except for other aesthetic reasons, there is little or no justification for using the same screening devices on all the
four facades of a building. Screening is most effective if separately calculated to suit the solar angle of incidence
equirements for each facade. The capital cost involved in providing appropriate and suitable sun
shading devices helps to minimize the heat load and consequently:
reduce the cost of air conditioning,
provide cooler indoor environment,
hermal comfort of the occupants and
increase productive efforts (Odeleye, 1989 ).
Effects of Climate on Building Elements
Climatic factors do not affect people's comfort alone; they can also impair the safety of buildings and lead to
ge and premature fatigue of building materials, according to Komolafe (1988). In the tropics, for
example, factors such as intense solar radiation, high humidity and condensation, dust and sandstorms and the
salt content of the air affect building materials.
For walling materials, the comfort implication of heat storage capacity, where they are needed, are secondary to
those of privacy, stability, protection and security against house - breaking. As a result of this, sandcrete block
lls, adobe or wattle and daub are commonly used in various climatic zones.
The picture is not better with respect to roofing materials in common use. For example, galvanized iron sheet
absorbs 65% of solar radiation which increases to 80% when it gets old and dirty. Similarly asbestos
roofing sheets absorb as high as 61% of heat, which increases to 83% when old and dirty (Komolafe, 1988).
Generally, the problem is not what is thermally desirable and efficient, but what is readily available and
nomically affordable to the people
www.iiste.org
For body comfort, the most important factor which affects the absence of discomfort in an enclosed space is the
The following fundamental rules for site orientations and solar control are generally valid:
Open facades should face north or south as much as possible to avoid direct radiation from a low sun
dry or arid zones, screening of openings in mostly closed wall surfaces is indispensable.
humid zones it is necessary to screen all openings and in some circumstances, complete
A good design for thermal comfort in the Nigerian climate should observe the following considerations:
In the tropics, protection from the sun is always necessary. This is because the intensity, duration and the angle
rminants of the design precautions
quired.
Except for other aesthetic reasons, there is little or no justification for using the same screening devices on all the
four facades of a building. Screening is most effective if separately calculated to suit the solar angle of incidence
equirements for each facade. The capital cost involved in providing appropriate and suitable sun -
Climatic factors do not affect people's comfort alone; they can also impair the safety of buildings and lead to
ge and premature fatigue of building materials, according to Komolafe (1988). In the tropics, for
example, factors such as intense solar radiation, high humidity and condensation, dust and sandstorms and the
For walling materials, the comfort implication of heat storage capacity, where they are needed, are secondary to
breaking. As a result of this, sandcrete block
lls, adobe or wattle and daub are commonly used in various climatic zones.
The picture is not better with respect to roofing materials in common use. For example, galvanized iron sheet
and dirty. Similarly asbestos – cement
roofing sheets absorb as high as 61% of heat, which increases to 83% when old and dirty (Komolafe, 1988).
Generally, the problem is not what is thermally desirable and efficient, but what is readily available and
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225
Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
3.6 Green Architecture
Green architecture refers to the creation or restructuring of buildings so that they have a minimal impact on the
environment. There are a number of different approaches to green construction,
the responsible recycling of existing resources along with the efficient use of environmentally friendly systems
to provide water and power services to buildings that are created using a sustainable design. As more people
have become concerned about the wise use of the planet's resources, the concept of green architecture has gained
in both acceptability and interest. Generally, a green architect will attempt to design or overhaul buildings so that
they provide all the necessary functions but do not pose a great threat to the surrounding environment. In many
cases, this means using building materials that are composed of organic compounds rather than synthetics. The
building material may be wood, bricks, or other elements th
demolition. These harvested materials are joined with newer technology to create structures that fit into the
surrounding landscape with greater ease and make the best use of availed resources for heating
and water supply to the edifice. The use of solar panels is a common element of green architecture. The panels,
along with their storage tanks, make it possible to store energy for electrical needs such as cooking, keeping the
temperature in the building at a comfortable level, and running necessary equipment such as computer. In recent
years, coupling of a solar energy system with a wind system has been experimented with, effectively drawing on
two renewable resources to create energy to
Another important aspect of green design is the strategic placement of windows around the facing of the building.
Ideally, the windows are placed so that the most efficient use of sunligh
to decreasing the demand for artificial light during the daytime, the windows can also serve as a means of
allowing the natural sunlight to provide a degree of warmth to the interior of the building. This in turn m
possible to utilize less of the stored solar or wind energy to keep the space at an equitable temperature.
Depending on the placement of the building and its intended purpose, other aspects of green architecture may be
included. The building may be recessed partially into the side of a hill, thus providing natural insulation.
Composting toilets may be the ideal solution in areas where water is hard to come by (Sustainable Architecture,
2010). Finding ways to use whatever elements are native to the a
with nature, such as creating blocks using local sand rather than shipping in bricks constructed elsewhere. While
the process of creating green architecture may be more deficient in some areas, there is no do
any structure can be altered or designed to be more environmentally friendly.
3.7 Green Architecture and Climate Change
It is estimated that at present, buildings contribute as much as one third of total global annual greenhouse gas
emissions, primarily through the use of fossil fuel during their operational phase and consumes up to 40% of all
energy (Adeleke, 2010). This includes energy used in the production and transportation of materials to building
construction sites, as well as the energy used to operate buildings. Given the massive growth in new construction
in economies in transition, and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is done,
greenhouse gas emissions from buildings will more than double in
Green architecture is creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource
efficient throughout a building's life
renovation and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of
economy, utility, durability and comfort (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). Green buildings are
designed to reduce the overall impact of the bu
This is achieved by efficiently using energy, water and other resources, protecting occupants' heath and
improving employees' productivity and reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradat
efficiency and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions must be the foundation of every national climatic
change strategy and incorporated into all development plans including those pertaining to building policy (Obot,
2010).
3.8 The Architect in Combating Climate Change
The Architect as a key player in the Building Industry, play a very vital role in combating the effect of climate
change on the built environment. According to Omotoso, (2011),the Architect can contribute to the reduction of
the energy and demand on resources associated with construction and operation of buildings by the followings:
• Incorporating existing buildings and structures into design schemes as much as possible instead of
demolishing such buildings and structures to ma
• Collaborating with Mechanical and Electrical Engineers to design for reduced consumption of energy in
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
5
Green architecture refers to the creation or restructuring of buildings so that they have a minimal impact on the
environment. There are a number of different approaches to green construction, with many of the ideas involving
the responsible recycling of existing resources along with the efficient use of environmentally friendly systems
to provide water and power services to buildings that are created using a sustainable design. As more people
have become concerned about the wise use of the planet's resources, the concept of green architecture has gained
in both acceptability and interest. Generally, a green architect will attempt to design or overhaul buildings so that
ssary functions but do not pose a great threat to the surrounding environment. In many
cases, this means using building materials that are composed of organic compounds rather than synthetics. The
building material may be wood, bricks, or other elements that are harvested from older buildings scheduled for
demolition. These harvested materials are joined with newer technology to create structures that fit into the
surrounding landscape with greater ease and make the best use of availed resources for heating
and water supply to the edifice. The use of solar panels is a common element of green architecture. The panels,
along with their storage tanks, make it possible to store energy for electrical needs such as cooking, keeping the
e in the building at a comfortable level, and running necessary equipment such as computer. In recent
years, coupling of a solar energy system with a wind system has been experimented with, effectively drawing on
two renewable resources to create energy to meet the demands of modern life (Sustainable Architecture, 2010).
Another important aspect of green design is the strategic placement of windows around the facing of the building.
Ideally, the windows are placed so that the most efficient use of sunlight during the day takes place. In addition
to decreasing the demand for artificial light during the daytime, the windows can also serve as a means of
allowing the natural sunlight to provide a degree of warmth to the interior of the building. This in turn m
possible to utilize less of the stored solar or wind energy to keep the space at an equitable temperature.
Depending on the placement of the building and its intended purpose, other aspects of green architecture may be
recessed partially into the side of a hill, thus providing natural insulation.
Composting toilets may be the ideal solution in areas where water is hard to come by (Sustainable Architecture,
2010). Finding ways to use whatever elements are native to the area also helps to keep the structure in balance
with nature, such as creating blocks using local sand rather than shipping in bricks constructed elsewhere. While
the process of creating green architecture may be more deficient in some areas, there is no do
any structure can be altered or designed to be more environmentally friendly.
Green Architecture and Climate Change
It is estimated that at present, buildings contribute as much as one third of total global annual greenhouse gas
emissions, primarily through the use of fossil fuel during their operational phase and consumes up to 40% of all
energy (Adeleke, 2010). This includes energy used in the production and transportation of materials to building
the energy used to operate buildings. Given the massive growth in new construction
in economies in transition, and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is done,
greenhouse gas emissions from buildings will more than double in the next few years.
Green architecture is creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource
efficient throughout a building's life - cycle, from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance,
n and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of
economy, utility, durability and comfort (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). Green buildings are
designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment.
This is achieved by efficiently using energy, water and other resources, protecting occupants' heath and
improving employees' productivity and reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradat
efficiency and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions must be the foundation of every national climatic
change strategy and incorporated into all development plans including those pertaining to building policy (Obot,
ct in Combating Climate Change
The Architect as a key player in the Building Industry, play a very vital role in combating the effect of climate
change on the built environment. According to Omotoso, (2011),the Architect can contribute to the reduction of
the energy and demand on resources associated with construction and operation of buildings by the followings:
Incorporating existing buildings and structures into design schemes as much as possible instead of
demolishing such buildings and structures to make way for new buildings.
Collaborating with Mechanical and Electrical Engineers to design for reduced consumption of energy in
www.iiste.org
Green architecture refers to the creation or restructuring of buildings so that they have a minimal impact on the
with many of the ideas involving
the responsible recycling of existing resources along with the efficient use of environmentally friendly systems
to provide water and power services to buildings that are created using a sustainable design. As more people
have become concerned about the wise use of the planet's resources, the concept of green architecture has gained
in both acceptability and interest. Generally, a green architect will attempt to design or overhaul buildings so that
ssary functions but do not pose a great threat to the surrounding environment. In many
cases, this means using building materials that are composed of organic compounds rather than synthetics. The
at are harvested from older buildings scheduled for
demolition. These harvested materials are joined with newer technology to create structures that fit into the
surrounding landscape with greater ease and make the best use of availed resources for heating, cooling, cooking
and water supply to the edifice. The use of solar panels is a common element of green architecture. The panels,
along with their storage tanks, make it possible to store energy for electrical needs such as cooking, keeping the
e in the building at a comfortable level, and running necessary equipment such as computer. In recent
years, coupling of a solar energy system with a wind system has been experimented with, effectively drawing on
meet the demands of modern life (Sustainable Architecture, 2010).
Another important aspect of green design is the strategic placement of windows around the facing of the building.
t during the day takes place. In addition
to decreasing the demand for artificial light during the daytime, the windows can also serve as a means of
allowing the natural sunlight to provide a degree of warmth to the interior of the building. This in turn makes it
possible to utilize less of the stored solar or wind energy to keep the space at an equitable temperature.
Depending on the placement of the building and its intended purpose, other aspects of green architecture may be
recessed partially into the side of a hill, thus providing natural insulation.
Composting toilets may be the ideal solution in areas where water is hard to come by (Sustainable Architecture,
rea also helps to keep the structure in balance
with nature, such as creating blocks using local sand rather than shipping in bricks constructed elsewhere. While
the process of creating green architecture may be more deficient in some areas, there is no doubt that just about
It is estimated that at present, buildings contribute as much as one third of total global annual greenhouse gas
emissions, primarily through the use of fossil fuel during their operational phase and consumes up to 40% of all
energy (Adeleke, 2010). This includes energy used in the production and transportation of materials to building
the energy used to operate buildings. Given the massive growth in new construction
in economies in transition, and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is done,
Green architecture is creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource -
cycle, from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance,
n and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of
economy, utility, durability and comfort (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). Green buildings are
ilt environment on human health and the natural environment.
This is achieved by efficiently using energy, water and other resources, protecting occupants' heath and
improving employees' productivity and reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation. Energy
efficiency and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions must be the foundation of every national climatic
change strategy and incorporated into all development plans including those pertaining to building policy (Obot,
The Architect as a key player in the Building Industry, play a very vital role in combating the effect of climate
change on the built environment. According to Omotoso, (2011),the Architect can contribute to the reduction of
the energy and demand on resources associated with construction and operation of buildings by the followings:
Incorporating existing buildings and structures into design schemes as much as possible instead of
Collaborating with Mechanical and Electrical Engineers to design for reduced consumption of energy in
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225
Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
buildings.
• Specifying recyclable, reusable, local, natural, durable and environmental friendly building materials.
• Creating high performance buildings that take maximum advantage of natural ventilation and lighting.
• Planning cities, part of cities and neighbourhoods in such a manner that people can live and work and
take leisure within a single environment.
• Preserving biologically rich landscapes in master planning.
The Architect can contribute to the mitigation of the current and future effects of climate change on the built
environment by:
• Improved planning and building design to reduce urban heat and temperature rise. Urban popul
will want more access to outdoor natural open spaces as temperatures rise.
• Climate modification using plants, siting of buildings and using different surface materials and
topographic features either as they exist or as they could be constructed.
• Use of plants to enclose and modulate spaces of roads, buildings and forms.
• Extensive use of trees to shade buildings, people and road surfaces from solar radiation and reduce air
pollution and ameliorate temperature.
• Use of vertical louvers, projecting fins,
louvers, slates, concrete and metal grills to control sun penetration.
• Collaborating with members of the design team and the client to develop and update construction
designs that provide increased
humidity, levels of precipitation, wind speeds and frequency of extreme weather events.
4.0 Conclusion
Architecture is crucial in the present and future development of a country. As the
there is an urgent need to adopt green building standards. This will ensure not just cost
also healthier and more productive living environment (Adeleke, 2010). It can make a major contribution to the
pressing search to devise ways of life that are less taxing on the earth's resources, the relationship of buildings to
their environment, their location with regard to public amenities, the burden their occupants will place on road
networks are issues that will determine a building's green thumbprint.
The parameter of sustainable and environmentally friendly architecture is wide and the ability to control living
environments exists as never before. Since buildings have a long life, the effects of decisio
felt for many years to come. Thus, low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by
all professionals, clients and developers who claim to be producing quality buildings since quality requires that
today’s buildings not only meet the needs of the present occupants but also be an asset rather than a liability for
our children and future generations.
The following recommendations therefore become very necessary
• Architects, engineers and developers make a decis
environmentally friendly buildings. At present, what we need is a new generation of buildings: low in
energy consumption and environmentally friendly, that will set new standards in our urban centres.
• Environmental welfare that this will lead to reduction in CO2 emission, create better
Environments and help us to move towards sustainable development should be encouraged.
• As building professionals, we must take a keen interest in green buildings and a
architecture of the 21st Century is about environmental design.
• Government should take the leading role to facilitate and encourage best environmental practice. So
much so that practically all the new government buildings should be
should be good case studies for “green” building principles.
• It is important that the government moves to the forefront and be seen to guide the construction industry
by developing comprehensive targets to counter the challenge
• Low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients
and developers To achieve this, we must ‘touch this earth lightly’.
References
Adeleke, K. (2010): Green Building Codes
Architects Colloquium organised by The Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, March, 2010.
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
6
Specifying recyclable, reusable, local, natural, durable and environmental friendly building materials.
performance buildings that take maximum advantage of natural ventilation and lighting.
Planning cities, part of cities and neighbourhoods in such a manner that people can live and work and
take leisure within a single environment.
rich landscapes in master planning.
The Architect can contribute to the mitigation of the current and future effects of climate change on the built
Improved planning and building design to reduce urban heat and temperature rise. Urban popul
will want more access to outdoor natural open spaces as temperatures rise.
Climate modification using plants, siting of buildings and using different surface materials and
topographic features either as they exist or as they could be constructed.
of plants to enclose and modulate spaces of roads, buildings and forms.
Extensive use of trees to shade buildings, people and road surfaces from solar radiation and reduce air
pollution and ameliorate temperature.
Use of vertical louvers, projecting fins, projecting eaves, horizontal canopy or awning, horizontal
louvers, slates, concrete and metal grills to control sun penetration.
Collaborating with members of the design team and the client to develop and update construction
designs that provide increased durability and reliability in the face of changing temperature, relative
humidity, levels of precipitation, wind speeds and frequency of extreme weather events.
Architecture is crucial in the present and future development of a country. As the number of buildings multiplies,
there is an urgent need to adopt green building standards. This will ensure not just cost-
also healthier and more productive living environment (Adeleke, 2010). It can make a major contribution to the
pressing search to devise ways of life that are less taxing on the earth's resources, the relationship of buildings to
their environment, their location with regard to public amenities, the burden their occupants will place on road
t will determine a building's green thumbprint.
The parameter of sustainable and environmentally friendly architecture is wide and the ability to control living
environments exists as never before. Since buildings have a long life, the effects of decisio
felt for many years to come. Thus, low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by
all professionals, clients and developers who claim to be producing quality buildings since quality requires that
uildings not only meet the needs of the present occupants but also be an asset rather than a liability for
The following recommendations therefore become very necessary
Architects, engineers and developers make a decisive attempt to combat global warming by putting up
environmentally friendly buildings. At present, what we need is a new generation of buildings: low in
energy consumption and environmentally friendly, that will set new standards in our urban centres.
ironmental welfare that this will lead to reduction in CO2 emission, create better
Environments and help us to move towards sustainable development should be encouraged.
As building professionals, we must take a keen interest in green buildings and always remember that the
architecture of the 21st Century is about environmental design.
Government should take the leading role to facilitate and encourage best environmental practice. So
much so that practically all the new government buildings should be environmentally friendly and
should be good case studies for “green” building principles.
It is important that the government moves to the forefront and be seen to guide the construction industry
by developing comprehensive targets to counter the challenges of Climate Change.
Low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients
and developers To achieve this, we must ‘touch this earth lightly’.
Adeleke, K. (2010): Green Building Codes - A Priority for Sustainable Development. Paper presented at the
Architects Colloquium organised by The Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, March, 2010.
www.iiste.org
Specifying recyclable, reusable, local, natural, durable and environmental friendly building materials.
performance buildings that take maximum advantage of natural ventilation and lighting.
Planning cities, part of cities and neighbourhoods in such a manner that people can live and work and
The Architect can contribute to the mitigation of the current and future effects of climate change on the built
Improved planning and building design to reduce urban heat and temperature rise. Urban population
Climate modification using plants, siting of buildings and using different surface materials and
Extensive use of trees to shade buildings, people and road surfaces from solar radiation and reduce air
projecting eaves, horizontal canopy or awning, horizontal
Collaborating with members of the design team and the client to develop and update construction
durability and reliability in the face of changing temperature, relative
humidity, levels of precipitation, wind speeds and frequency of extreme weather events.
number of buildings multiplies,
-effective buildings but
also healthier and more productive living environment (Adeleke, 2010). It can make a major contribution to the
pressing search to devise ways of life that are less taxing on the earth's resources, the relationship of buildings to
their environment, their location with regard to public amenities, the burden their occupants will place on road
The parameter of sustainable and environmentally friendly architecture is wide and the ability to control living
environments exists as never before. Since buildings have a long life, the effects of decisions made today will be
felt for many years to come. Thus, low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by
all professionals, clients and developers who claim to be producing quality buildings since quality requires that
uildings not only meet the needs of the present occupants but also be an asset rather than a liability for
ive attempt to combat global warming by putting up
environmentally friendly buildings. At present, what we need is a new generation of buildings: low in
energy consumption and environmentally friendly, that will set new standards in our urban centres.
ironmental welfare that this will lead to reduction in CO2 emission, create better-Built
Environments and help us to move towards sustainable development should be encouraged.
lways remember that the
Government should take the leading role to facilitate and encourage best environmental practice. So
environmentally friendly and
It is important that the government moves to the forefront and be seen to guide the construction industry
s of Climate Change.
Low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients
y for Sustainable Development. Paper presented at the
Architects Colloquium organised by The Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, March, 2010.
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225
Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Bulkeley H., Schroeder H., Janda K., Zhao J., Armstrong A., Chu S.Y and Ghosh S.: Report prepared
for the World Bank Urban Symposium on Climate Change.
Komolafe, L. K. (1988): "Influence of Climate on Building Design and Thermal Performance Assessment of
Some Construction Materials" in Ten Years of Building and Road Research. Edited by G. N. Omange, NBRRI,
Lagos. pp 95-108.
Obot, E. A. (2010): Architects and Global Warming. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organized by
The Nigerian Institute of Architects, Abuja. March. 2010
Odeleye, A. (1989): "The Design of Buildings for Comfort in the Nigeria
Seminar on "Architecture, Climate and Environment" organized by The Nigerian Building and Road Research
Institute in Lagos. October.
Odjugo PAO (2010). General overview of climate change impacts in Nigeria. J. Human Ecol.
Omotoso, A. J. (2011): The role of the Architect in Managing the Effect of Climate Change. Paper presented at
the Architects Colloquium organised by Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, June, 2011
Satterthwaite, D. Hug, S. Pelling, M.
Series; Adapting to Climate change in Urban Areas
nations.ISBN: 978-1-84369-669-8.
Sustainable Architecture (2010): What Is Gre
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/greenbuilding.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009). Green Building Home. Retrieved
http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm
http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm
Vidal,J.(2007, June28). Burgeoning cities face catastrophe, says UN,
Journal of Environment and Earth Science
3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
7
Bulkeley H., Schroeder H., Janda K., Zhao J., Armstrong A., Chu S.Y and Ghosh S.: Report prepared
the World Bank Urban Symposium on Climate Change.
Komolafe, L. K. (1988): "Influence of Climate on Building Design and Thermal Performance Assessment of
Some Construction Materials" in Ten Years of Building and Road Research. Edited by G. N. Omange, NBRRI,
Obot, E. A. (2010): Architects and Global Warming. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organized by
The Nigerian Institute of Architects, Abuja. March. 2010
Odeleye, A. (1989): "The Design of Buildings for Comfort in the Nigerian Climate." Paper presented at the
Seminar on "Architecture, Climate and Environment" organized by The Nigerian Building and Road Research
Odjugo PAO (2010). General overview of climate change impacts in Nigeria. J. Human Ecol.
Omotoso, A. J. (2011): The role of the Architect in Managing the Effect of Climate Change. Paper presented at
the Architects Colloquium organised by Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, June, 2011
Satterthwaite, D. Hug, S. Pelling, M. Reid, H. and Lankao, P.M.(2007): Human Settlements Discussion paper
Series; Adapting to Climate change in Urban Areas- The possibilities and constraints in low and middle income
Sustainable Architecture (2010): What Is Green Architecture? Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/greenbuilding. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/greenbuilding.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009). Green Building Home. Retrieved from
http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm
http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm
Burgeoning cities face catastrophe, says UN, The Guardian.
www.iiste.org
Bulkeley H., Schroeder H., Janda K., Zhao J., Armstrong A., Chu S.Y and Ghosh S.: Report prepared
Komolafe, L. K. (1988): "Influence of Climate on Building Design and Thermal Performance Assessment of
Some Construction Materials" in Ten Years of Building and Road Research. Edited by G. N. Omange, NBRRI,
Obot, E. A. (2010): Architects and Global Warming. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organized by
n Climate." Paper presented at the
Seminar on "Architecture, Climate and Environment" organized by The Nigerian Building and Road Research
Odjugo PAO (2010). General overview of climate change impacts in Nigeria. J. Human Ecol., 29(1): 47-55.
Omotoso, A. J. (2011): The role of the Architect in Managing the Effect of Climate Change. Paper presented at
the Architects Colloquium organised by Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, June, 2011
Reid, H. and Lankao, P.M.(2007): Human Settlements Discussion paper
The possibilities and constraints in low and middle income
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Climate change and architectural practice in nigeria

  • 1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225 Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 Climate Change and Architectural Practice in Nigeria Oluwasola Feyisara Oni 1. Architectural Technology Department, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria. 2. Department of Architecture, Joseph Ayo Babalola Unive • doluakingbohungbe@gmail.com Abstract This paper deals with Climate change and how it has impacted on the Nigerian Architectural practice. It discusses the effect of climate change on architectural design as well meet the social, economic, and environmental needs of the people it serves over time and changing needs. Since climate is changing and the effect on the built environment can only be reduced and not totally eliminate is need for Architects and other professionals in the building industry to produce buildings that are sustainable. While this situation poses a major challenge to the practice of architecture, there arises the need for designers to combat it through improved building design. The paper concludes by suggesting ways to combat the effect of climate change through design solutions. Keywords: climate change, Architectural practice, design solution, sustainable. 1. Introduction Climate change has become the primary environmental threat of the 21st century. It is now on the global political agenda as never before. The current concern is based on a number of recent scientific analyses that suggest that potential climate change effects are at a scale that change, but equally important, to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring. Science suggests that its effects are at a scale that adds urgency not only to the efforts to prevent additional to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring. Responding to climate change falls into two broad classes of action, mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation of human-induced climate change refers to measures that may eit (abatement) or increase terrestrial storage of carbon (sequestration). Although Nigeria, like other developing countries, is not required under the current global climate change negotiations to take on emissi commitments, it nevertheless has to adapt to the expected impacts of anticipated climate change. Adaptation refers to all the responses to climate change that may be used to reduce vulnerability. Responding to climate change through adaptation of seeking out opportunities and design actions to reduce the vulnerability of the people to climate change impacts. Nigeria needs to explore a number of opportunities that exist to build a c able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions caused by the adverse effects of climate change, including climate-related hazards and disasters by strengthening its coping or adaptive capacity. Architects over the years have reflected on the importance of having good quality environment. The quest for environmental values in architecture, for a harmonious balance between man and his environment is not new approach. It is so much that for centuries, mankind ad vernacular architecture. However, since the industrial revolution, this has been increasingly abandoned in favour of universal architecture, which in many parts of the world, Nigeria included has led to buildings. The effects of global warming and Climate Change are increasingly becoming apparent, notably in Nigeria is the serious famine we are witnessing today, diminishing rains, drying rivers and power rationing just to mention but a few. Faced with these dangers, the public and policymakers alike must become conscious of the need to protect our environment. One response to these issues is to approach architecture in a way that respects the environment. The aim of this paper is to identify how climate change has influenced the practice of Architecture in Nigeria. The objectives are to: i. identify the causes of climate change in Nigeria; ii. determine the effects of Climate change on the Nigerian Environment; iii. examine how has Climate Change iv. determine the role of the Architect in combating the effects of climate change. Journal of Environment and Earth Science 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) 1 Climate Change and Architectural Practice in Nigeria Oluwasola Feyisara Oni1 & Davies Olugbenga Akingbohungbe Architectural Technology Department, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria. Department of Architecture, Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji Arakeji, Osun State, Nigeria. doluakingbohungbe@gmail.com his paper deals with Climate change and how it has impacted on the Nigerian Architectural practice. It discusses the effect of climate change on architectural design as well as how Architects design buildings that meet the social, economic, and environmental needs of the people it serves over time and changing needs. Since climate is changing and the effect on the built environment can only be reduced and not totally eliminate is need for Architects and other professionals in the building industry to produce buildings that are sustainable. While this situation poses a major challenge to the practice of architecture, there arises the need for designers to gh improved building design. The paper concludes by suggesting ways to combat the effect of climate change through design solutions. climate change, Architectural practice, design solution, sustainable. e the primary environmental threat of the 21st century. It is now on the global political agenda as never before. The current concern is based on a number of recent scientific analyses that suggest that potential climate change effects are at a scale that adds urgency not only to the efforts to prevent additional change, but equally important, to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring. Science suggests that its effects are at a scale that adds urgency not only to the efforts to prevent additional change, but equally important, to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring. Responding to climate change falls into two broad classes of action, mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation of induced climate change refers to measures that may either reduce the increase in greenhouse emissions (abatement) or increase terrestrial storage of carbon (sequestration). Although Nigeria, like other developing countries, is not required under the current global climate change negotiations to take on emissi commitments, it nevertheless has to adapt to the expected impacts of anticipated climate change. Adaptation refers to all the responses to climate change that may be used to reduce vulnerability. Responding to climate change through adaptation initiatives will require Nigeria to engage in concerted efforts of seeking out opportunities and design actions to reduce the vulnerability of the people to climate change impacts. Nigeria needs to explore a number of opportunities that exist to build a climate- able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions caused by the adverse effects of climate change, related hazards and disasters by strengthening its coping or adaptive capacity. er the years have reflected on the importance of having good quality environment. The quest for environmental values in architecture, for a harmonious balance between man and his environment is not new approach. It is so much that for centuries, mankind adopted this approach out of necessity, particularly in vernacular architecture. However, since the industrial revolution, this has been increasingly abandoned in favour of universal architecture, which in many parts of the world, Nigeria included has led to buildings. The effects of global warming and Climate Change are increasingly becoming apparent, notably in Nigeria is the serious famine we are witnessing today, diminishing rains, drying rivers and power rationing just ew. Faced with these dangers, the public and policymakers alike must become conscious of the need to protect our environment. One response to these issues is to approach architecture in a way that respects ify how climate change has influenced the practice of Architecture in Nigeria. identify the causes of climate change in Nigeria; determine the effects of Climate change on the Nigerian Environment; examine how has Climate Change has affected architectural practice in Nigeria; determine the role of the Architect in combating the effects of climate change. www.iiste.org Climate Change and Architectural Practice in Nigeria & Davies Olugbenga Akingbohungbe2* Architectural Technology Department, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria. rsity, Ikeji Arakeji, Osun State, Nigeria. his paper deals with Climate change and how it has impacted on the Nigerian Architectural practice. It as how Architects design buildings that meet the social, economic, and environmental needs of the people it serves over time and changing needs. Since climate is changing and the effect on the built environment can only be reduced and not totally eliminated, there is need for Architects and other professionals in the building industry to produce buildings that are sustainable. While this situation poses a major challenge to the practice of architecture, there arises the need for designers to gh improved building design. The paper concludes by suggesting ways to combat the effect of e the primary environmental threat of the 21st century. It is now on the global political agenda as never before. The current concern is based on a number of recent scientific analyses that suggest that adds urgency not only to the efforts to prevent additional change, but equally important, to efforts to adapt to the impacts already occurring. Science suggests that its change, but equally important, Responding to climate change falls into two broad classes of action, mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation of her reduce the increase in greenhouse emissions (abatement) or increase terrestrial storage of carbon (sequestration). Although Nigeria, like other developing countries, is not required under the current global climate change negotiations to take on emission reduction commitments, it nevertheless has to adapt to the expected impacts of anticipated climate change. Adaptation initiatives will require Nigeria to engage in concerted efforts of seeking out opportunities and design actions to reduce the vulnerability of the people to climate change -resilient society that is able to withstand or recover quickly from difficult conditions caused by the adverse effects of climate change, related hazards and disasters by strengthening its coping or adaptive capacity. er the years have reflected on the importance of having good quality environment. The quest for environmental values in architecture, for a harmonious balance between man and his environment is not new opted this approach out of necessity, particularly in vernacular architecture. However, since the industrial revolution, this has been increasingly abandoned in favour of universal architecture, which in many parts of the world, Nigeria included has led to energy intensive buildings. The effects of global warming and Climate Change are increasingly becoming apparent, notably in Nigeria is the serious famine we are witnessing today, diminishing rains, drying rivers and power rationing just ew. Faced with these dangers, the public and policymakers alike must become conscious of the need to protect our environment. One response to these issues is to approach architecture in a way that respects ify how climate change has influenced the practice of Architecture in Nigeria. has affected architectural practice in Nigeria; determine the role of the Architect in combating the effects of climate change.
  • 2. Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225 Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Greenhouse Gases Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the environment and also result from human acti abundant greenhouse gas is water vapour, which reaches the atmosphere through evaporation from oceans, lakes, and rivers. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is not directly affected by human activities. • Water Vapour Water vapour is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, accounting for about 60 to 70 per cent of the natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not have a significant direct impact on water vapour levels in the atmosphere. However, as human activities incr atmosphere (producing warmer temperatures on earth), the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as water evaporation from plants, increase and raise the amount of water vapour in the atmosp • Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide constantly circulates in the environment through a variety of natural processes known as the carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the decay of plant and animal matter both release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In respiration, animals break down food to release the energy required to build and maintain cellular activity. A by-product of respiration is the formation of carbon dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into the environment. Oceans, lakes, and rivers absorb plants collect carbon dioxide and use it to make their own food; in the process incorporating carbon into new plant tissue and releasing oxygen to the environment as a by buildings, power automobiles, and fuel electricity carbon, such as the fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas; wood or wood products; and some solid wastes. When these products are burned, they release carbon dioxide into the air. In addition, humans cut down huge tracts of trees for lumber or to clear land for farming or building. This process, known as deforestation, can both release the carbon stored in trees and significantly • Methane Many natural processes produce methane, also known as natural gas. Decomposition of carbon substances found in oxygen-free environments, such as wastes in landfills, release such as cattle and sheep belch methane into the air as a by damp soils, such as rice fields, produce methane when they break down organic matter. Methane is also emitted during coal mining and the production and transport of other fossil fuels. Atmospheric concentrations of methane are far less than carbon dioxide, and methane only stays in the atmosphere for a decade or so. But methane is an extremely effective heat-trapping ga • Nitrous Oxide Nitrous oxide is released by the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile exhaust is a large source of this gas. In addition, many farmers use nitrogen fertilizers break down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide into the air. Ploughing fields also releases nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide traps heat about 300 times more effectively than carbon dioxide and can stay in the atmosphere for a century. • Ozone Ozone is both a natural and human- layer and shields life on Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, which can cause cancer and other damage to plants and animals. However, ozone in the lower atm of air pollution) and is considered a greenhouse gas. Unlike other greenhouse gases which are well throughout the atmosphere, ozone in the lower atmosphere tends to be limited to industrialised regions. • Synthetic Chemicals Manufacturing processes use or generate many synthetic chemicals that are powerful greenhouse gases. Although these gases are produced in relatively small quantities, they trap hundreds to thousands of times more heat in the atmosphere than an equal amount of carbon dioxide does. In addition, their chemical bonds make them exceptionally long lived in the environment. Journal of Environment and Earth Science 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) 2 Greenhouse gases occur naturally in the environment and also result from human activities. By far the most abundant greenhouse gas is water vapour, which reaches the atmosphere through evaporation from oceans, lakes, and rivers. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is not directly affected by human activities. vapour is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, accounting for about 60 to 70 per cent of the natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not have a significant direct impact on water vapour levels in the atmosphere. However, as human activities increase the concentration of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (producing warmer temperatures on earth), the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as water evaporation from plants, increase and raise the amount of water vapour in the atmosp Carbon dioxide constantly circulates in the environment through a variety of natural processes known as the carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the decay of plant and animal matter both release carbon dioxide into the espiration, animals break down food to release the energy required to build and maintain cellular product of respiration is the formation of carbon dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into the environment. Oceans, lakes, and rivers absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Through photosynthesis, plants collect carbon dioxide and use it to make their own food; in the process incorporating carbon into new plant tissue and releasing oxygen to the environment as a by-product. In order to pro buildings, power automobiles, and fuel electricity-producing power plants, humans burn objects that contain carbon, such as the fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas; wood or wood products; and some solid wastes. When are burned, they release carbon dioxide into the air. In addition, humans cut down huge tracts of trees for lumber or to clear land for farming or building. This process, known as deforestation, can both release the carbon stored in trees and significantly reduce the number of trees available to absorb carbon dioxide. Many natural processes produce methane, also known as natural gas. Decomposition of carbon free environments, such as wastes in landfills, release methane. Ruminating animals such as cattle and sheep belch methane into the air as a by- product of digestion. Microorganisms that live in damp soils, such as rice fields, produce methane when they break down organic matter. Methane is also emitted coal mining and the production and transport of other fossil fuels. Atmospheric concentrations of methane are far less than carbon dioxide, and methane only stays in the atmosphere for a decade or so. But methane is an trapping gas. Nitrous oxide is released by the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile exhaust is a large source of this gas. In addition, many farmers use nitrogen-containing fertilizers to provide nutrients to their crops. When these down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide into the air. Ploughing fields also releases nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide traps heat about 300 times more effectively than carbon dioxide and can stay in the atmosphere for made greenhouse gas. Ozone in the upper atmosphere is known as the ozone layer and shields life on Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, which can cause cancer and other damage to plants and animals. However, ozone in the lower atmosphere is a component of smog (a severe type of air pollution) and is considered a greenhouse gas. Unlike other greenhouse gases which are well throughout the atmosphere, ozone in the lower atmosphere tends to be limited to industrialised regions. Manufacturing processes use or generate many synthetic chemicals that are powerful greenhouse gases. Although these gases are produced in relatively small quantities, they trap hundreds to thousands of times more han an equal amount of carbon dioxide does. In addition, their chemical bonds make them exceptionally long lived in the environment. www.iiste.org vities. By far the most abundant greenhouse gas is water vapour, which reaches the atmosphere through evaporation from oceans, lakes, and rivers. The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is not directly affected by human activities. vapour is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, accounting for about 60 to 70 per cent of the natural greenhouse effect. Humans do not have a significant direct impact on water vapour levels in the ease the concentration of other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (producing warmer temperatures on earth), the evaporation of oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as water evaporation from plants, increase and raise the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide constantly circulates in the environment through a variety of natural processes known as the carbon cycle. Volcanic eruptions and the decay of plant and animal matter both release carbon dioxide into the espiration, animals break down food to release the energy required to build and maintain cellular product of respiration is the formation of carbon dioxide, which is exhaled from animals into the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Through photosynthesis, plants collect carbon dioxide and use it to make their own food; in the process incorporating carbon into new product. In order to provide energy to heat producing power plants, humans burn objects that contain carbon, such as the fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas; wood or wood products; and some solid wastes. When are burned, they release carbon dioxide into the air. In addition, humans cut down huge tracts of trees for lumber or to clear land for farming or building. This process, known as deforestation, can both release reduce the number of trees available to absorb carbon dioxide. Many natural processes produce methane, also known as natural gas. Decomposition of carbon-containing methane. Ruminating animals product of digestion. Microorganisms that live in damp soils, such as rice fields, produce methane when they break down organic matter. Methane is also emitted coal mining and the production and transport of other fossil fuels. Atmospheric concentrations of methane are far less than carbon dioxide, and methane only stays in the atmosphere for a decade or so. But methane is an Nitrous oxide is released by the burning of fossil fuels, and automobile exhaust is a large source of this gas. In containing fertilizers to provide nutrients to their crops. When these down in the soil, they emit nitrous oxide into the air. Ploughing fields also releases nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide traps heat about 300 times more effectively than carbon dioxide and can stay in the atmosphere for made greenhouse gas. Ozone in the upper atmosphere is known as the ozone layer and shields life on Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation, which can cause cancer and other osphere is a component of smog (a severe type of air pollution) and is considered a greenhouse gas. Unlike other greenhouse gases which are well-mixed throughout the atmosphere, ozone in the lower atmosphere tends to be limited to industrialised regions. Manufacturing processes use or generate many synthetic chemicals that are powerful greenhouse gases. Although these gases are produced in relatively small quantities, they trap hundreds to thousands of times more han an equal amount of carbon dioxide does. In addition, their chemical bonds make
  • 3. Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225 Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 • Chloro-fluoro-Carbons Human-made greenhouse gases include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), a family of chlorine were widely used in the 20th century as refrigerants, aerosol spray propellants, and cleaning agents. Scientific studies showed that the chlorine released by CFCs into the upper atmosphere destroys the ozone layer. As a result, CFCs are being phased out of production under a 1987 international treaty, the Montréal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. CFCs were mostly banned in industrialised nations beginning in 1996 and will be phased out in developing countries after 2010. New chemic but they are also potent greenhouse gases. The substitutes include hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), and per fluorocarbons (PFCs). • Aerosols Fuel combustion, and to a lesser extent, agric tiny solid and liquid particles called aerosols that remain suspended in the atmosphere. Although aerosols are not considered greenhouse gases, they do affect global warming in several ways. Diesel engines and some types of biomass burning produce black aerosols such as soot, which absorb the sun’s energy and therefore contribute to warming. Conversely, coal sulphate aerosols, which are light-cultured aerosols that reflect incoming solar energy back to space. In this way, they have a cooling effect. Natural aerosols that also have a cooling effect are produced during volcanic eruptions and the evaporation of seawater. Aerosol particles also hav “seeds” for the condensation of water vapour into cloud masses. In general, the amount of solar energy reflected back to space is greater on cloudy days. Overall, aerosols may roughly offset the net warming infl through their direct cooling effect and half through their indirect cooling effect. However, considerable certainty in aerosol processes means that their cooling influence could be much larger or much s of the least understood factors in climate change and their effects are still being debated. Scientists are more certain, however, about the net effect of all greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions, which is estimated to be roughly equal to the warming influence of carbon dioxide alone. 2.2 Impact of the Built Environment on Climate Change According to the IPCC, buildings contribute about 31% of global CO2 emissions. This includes the emissions created during the construction and use environment throws up a number of climate change questions bothering on how resources and energy are consumed, land developed, buildings and infrastructure constructed as well as services sup connected. It is estimated that the cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. CO2 emissions are produced through heating, cooling and powering the built environment. These emissions have been rising by almost 2% per year, thanks largely to bigger homes with more energy consuming devices in them. Additional to warming due to greenhouse gases, the built environment has an influence on the albedo effect. Materials such as concrete and asphalt absorb greater leads to localized warming, known as urban heat islands. In large cities there can be as much as a 5 between the city centre and the rural environs. (Vidal , 2007) 3.0 The Nigerian Climate Climate, that is macro - and micro atmosphere. These are modified by topographic conditions of the earth and by the changes which civilization has made to its surface. Micro-climate is found in a more limited space like a room, a street, town or small landscape, while macro-climate is that found in a much larger space such as over a country, a continent or on oceans. Climatic conditions include weather observations over the longest only of temperatures and precipitation values, but also humidity, cloud, wind, air pressure and solar radiation. The Nigerian macro-climate may be classified into four zones according to Komolafe (1988) namely: (i) Hot - dry, (ii) Temperate dry (iii) Hot humid and (iv) Warm humid. Journal of Environment and Earth Science 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) 3 made greenhouse gases include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), a family of chlorine century as refrigerants, aerosol spray propellants, and cleaning agents. Scientific studies showed that the chlorine released by CFCs into the upper atmosphere destroys the ozone layer. As a out of production under a 1987 international treaty, the Montréal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. CFCs were mostly banned in industrialised nations beginning in 1996 and will be phased out in developing countries after 2010. New chemicals have been developed to replace CFCs, but they are also potent greenhouse gases. The substitutes include hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), and per fluorocarbons (PFCs). Fuel combustion, and to a lesser extent, agricultural and industrial processes, produce not only gases but also tiny solid and liquid particles called aerosols that remain suspended in the atmosphere. Although aerosols are not considered greenhouse gases, they do affect global warming in several ways. Diesel engines and some types of biomass burning produce black aerosols such as soot, which absorb the sun’s energy and therefore contribute to warming. Conversely, coal-fired power plants burning high cultured aerosols that reflect incoming solar energy back to space. In this way, they have a cooling effect. Natural aerosols that also have a cooling effect are produced during volcanic eruptions and the evaporation of seawater. Aerosol particles also have an indirect cooling influence by acting as “seeds” for the condensation of water vapour into cloud masses. In general, the amount of solar energy reflected back to space is greater on cloudy days. Overall, aerosols may roughly offset the net warming influence of noncarbonated dioxide greenhouse gases, half through their direct cooling effect and half through their indirect cooling effect. However, considerable certainty in aerosol processes means that their cooling influence could be much larger or much smaller. Aerosols are one of the least understood factors in climate change and their effects are still being debated. Scientists are more certain, however, about the net effect of all greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions, which is estimated to be qual to the warming influence of carbon dioxide alone. Impact of the Built Environment on Climate Change According to the IPCC, buildings contribute about 31% of global CO2 emissions. This includes the emissions created during the construction and use of buildings, from heating, cooling and powering them. The built environment throws up a number of climate change questions bothering on how resources and energy are consumed, land developed, buildings and infrastructure constructed as well as services sup It is estimated that the cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. CO2 emissions are produced through heating, cooling and powering the built environment. These emissions have most 2% per year, thanks largely to bigger homes with more energy consuming devices in them. Additional to warming due to greenhouse gases, the built environment has an influence on the albedo effect. Materials such as concrete and asphalt absorb greater amounts of heat than natural surfaces. This absorption leads to localized warming, known as urban heat islands. In large cities there can be as much as a 5 between the city centre and the rural environs. (Vidal , 2007) and micro - climate, is the sum of characteristic meteorological phenomena in the atmosphere. These are modified by topographic conditions of the earth and by the changes which civilization has is found in a more limited space like a room, a street, town or small landscape, climate is that found in a much larger space such as over a country, a continent or on oceans. Climatic conditions include weather observations over the longest possible period of time, and must consist not only of temperatures and precipitation values, but also humidity, cloud, wind, air pressure and solar radiation. climate may be classified into four zones according to Komolafe (1988) namely: www.iiste.org made greenhouse gases include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), a family of chlorine-containing gases that century as refrigerants, aerosol spray propellants, and cleaning agents. Scientific studies showed that the chlorine released by CFCs into the upper atmosphere destroys the ozone layer. As a out of production under a 1987 international treaty, the Montréal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. CFCs were mostly banned in industrialised nations beginning in 1996 als have been developed to replace CFCs, but they are also potent greenhouse gases. The substitutes include hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydro ultural and industrial processes, produce not only gases but also tiny solid and liquid particles called aerosols that remain suspended in the atmosphere. Although aerosols are not Diesel engines and some types of biomass burning produce black aerosols such as soot, which absorb the sun’s fired power plants burning high-sulphur coal emit cultured aerosols that reflect incoming solar energy back to space. In this way, they have a cooling effect. Natural aerosols that also have a cooling effect are produced during volcanic e an indirect cooling influence by acting as “seeds” for the condensation of water vapour into cloud masses. In general, the amount of solar energy reflected uence of noncarbonated dioxide greenhouse gases, half through their direct cooling effect and half through their indirect cooling effect. However, considerable certainty maller. Aerosols are one of the least understood factors in climate change and their effects are still being debated. Scientists are more certain, however, about the net effect of all greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions, which is estimated to be According to the IPCC, buildings contribute about 31% of global CO2 emissions. This includes the emissions of buildings, from heating, cooling and powering them. The built environment throws up a number of climate change questions bothering on how resources and energy are consumed, land developed, buildings and infrastructure constructed as well as services supplied and places It is estimated that the cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. CO2 emissions are produced through heating, cooling and powering the built environment. These emissions have most 2% per year, thanks largely to bigger homes with more energy consuming devices in them. Additional to warming due to greenhouse gases, the built environment has an influence on the albedo effect. amounts of heat than natural surfaces. This absorption leads to localized warming, known as urban heat islands. In large cities there can be as much as a 5o C difference climate, is the sum of characteristic meteorological phenomena in the atmosphere. These are modified by topographic conditions of the earth and by the changes which civilization has is found in a more limited space like a room, a street, town or small landscape, climate is that found in a much larger space such as over a country, a continent or on oceans. possible period of time, and must consist not only of temperatures and precipitation values, but also humidity, cloud, wind, air pressure and solar radiation. climate may be classified into four zones according to Komolafe (1988) namely:
  • 4. Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225 Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 3.1 Thermal Comfort Conditions For body comfort, the most important factor which affects the absence of discomfort in an enclosed space is the correct combinations of: • The air temperature; • The humidity; • The radiation from or to surrounding surfaces; • The movement of air and its freshness or stuffiness. 3.2 Site Planning for Comfort The following fundamental rules for site orientations and solar control are generally valid: • Open facades should face north or south as much as possible to avoid direct radiation from a low sun and the consequent intensive concentration of heat. • In hot - dry or arid zones, screening of openings in mostly closed wall surfaces is indispensable. • In hot - humid zones it is necessary to screen all openings and in some circumstances, complete facades against direct and indirect radiation from overcast skies. A good design for thermal comfort in the Nigerian climate should observe the following conside • Orientation of the buildings; • Cross ventilation within the habitable rooms; • Solar control and appropriate shading techniques; • Use of appropriate properties of materials like heat storage and insulation; • Appropriate and correct use of vegetati • Air humidification or evaporative cooling. 3.3 Site Orientation of Buildings Correct site orientation of buildings for thermal efficiency must pay attention to: • Solar radiation and the resultant heat load; • Direction and force of the wind and • The topography of the site. 3.4 Solar Control and Shading Devices In the tropics, protection from the sun is always necessary. This is because the intensity, duration and the angle of incidence of solar radiation to a particular surface are the main dete necessary for comfort. These factors affect the solar control measures such as: • The time of the day and the extent of screening required and • The calculation of the type, depth and separation of the screening elements re Except for other aesthetic reasons, there is little or no justification for using the same screening devices on all the four facades of a building. Screening is most effective if separately calculated to suit the solar angle of incidence and the requirements for each facade. The capital cost involved in providing appropriate and suitable sun shading devices helps to minimize the heat load and consequently: • reduce the cost of air conditioning, • provide cooler indoor environment, • ensure greater thermal comfort of the occupants and • increase productive efforts (Odeleye, 1989 ). 3.5 Effects of Climate on Building Elements Climatic factors do not affect people's comfort alone; they can also impair the safety of buildings and lead to building damage and premature fatigue of building materials, according to Komolafe (1988). In the tropics, for example, factors such as intense solar radiation, high humidity and condensation, dust and sandstorms and the salt content of the air affect building material For walling materials, the comfort implication of heat storage capacity, where they are needed, are secondary to those of privacy, stability, protection and security against house walling and thin mud walls, adobe or wattle and daub are commonly used in various climatic zones. The picture is not better with respect to roofing materials in common use. For example, galvanized iron sheet absorbs 65% of solar radiation which increases to 80% when it gets old roofing sheets absorb as high as 61% of heat, which increases to 83% when old and dirty (Komolafe, 1988). Generally, the problem is not what is thermally desirable and efficient, but what is readily available and economically affordable to the people Journal of Environment and Earth Science 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) 4 For body comfort, the most important factor which affects the absence of discomfort in an enclosed space is the The radiation from or to surrounding surfaces; The movement of air and its freshness or stuffiness. The following fundamental rules for site orientations and solar control are generally valid: Open facades should face north or south as much as possible to avoid direct radiation from a low sun and the consequent intensive concentration of heat. dry or arid zones, screening of openings in mostly closed wall surfaces is indispensable. humid zones it is necessary to screen all openings and in some circumstances, complete facades against direct and indirect radiation from overcast skies. A good design for thermal comfort in the Nigerian climate should observe the following conside Orientation of the buildings; Cross ventilation within the habitable rooms; Solar control and appropriate shading techniques; Use of appropriate properties of materials like heat storage and insulation; Appropriate and correct use of vegetation and Air humidification or evaporative cooling. Site Orientation of Buildings Correct site orientation of buildings for thermal efficiency must pay attention to: Solar radiation and the resultant heat load; Direction and force of the wind and Solar Control and Shading Devices In the tropics, protection from the sun is always necessary. This is because the intensity, duration and the angle of incidence of solar radiation to a particular surface are the main determinants of the design precautions necessary for comfort. These factors affect the solar control measures such as: The time of the day and the extent of screening required and The calculation of the type, depth and separation of the screening elements required. Except for other aesthetic reasons, there is little or no justification for using the same screening devices on all the four facades of a building. Screening is most effective if separately calculated to suit the solar angle of incidence equirements for each facade. The capital cost involved in providing appropriate and suitable sun shading devices helps to minimize the heat load and consequently: reduce the cost of air conditioning, provide cooler indoor environment, hermal comfort of the occupants and increase productive efforts (Odeleye, 1989 ). Effects of Climate on Building Elements Climatic factors do not affect people's comfort alone; they can also impair the safety of buildings and lead to ge and premature fatigue of building materials, according to Komolafe (1988). In the tropics, for example, factors such as intense solar radiation, high humidity and condensation, dust and sandstorms and the salt content of the air affect building materials. For walling materials, the comfort implication of heat storage capacity, where they are needed, are secondary to those of privacy, stability, protection and security against house - breaking. As a result of this, sandcrete block lls, adobe or wattle and daub are commonly used in various climatic zones. The picture is not better with respect to roofing materials in common use. For example, galvanized iron sheet absorbs 65% of solar radiation which increases to 80% when it gets old and dirty. Similarly asbestos roofing sheets absorb as high as 61% of heat, which increases to 83% when old and dirty (Komolafe, 1988). Generally, the problem is not what is thermally desirable and efficient, but what is readily available and nomically affordable to the people www.iiste.org For body comfort, the most important factor which affects the absence of discomfort in an enclosed space is the The following fundamental rules for site orientations and solar control are generally valid: Open facades should face north or south as much as possible to avoid direct radiation from a low sun dry or arid zones, screening of openings in mostly closed wall surfaces is indispensable. humid zones it is necessary to screen all openings and in some circumstances, complete A good design for thermal comfort in the Nigerian climate should observe the following considerations: In the tropics, protection from the sun is always necessary. This is because the intensity, duration and the angle rminants of the design precautions quired. Except for other aesthetic reasons, there is little or no justification for using the same screening devices on all the four facades of a building. Screening is most effective if separately calculated to suit the solar angle of incidence equirements for each facade. The capital cost involved in providing appropriate and suitable sun - Climatic factors do not affect people's comfort alone; they can also impair the safety of buildings and lead to ge and premature fatigue of building materials, according to Komolafe (1988). In the tropics, for example, factors such as intense solar radiation, high humidity and condensation, dust and sandstorms and the For walling materials, the comfort implication of heat storage capacity, where they are needed, are secondary to breaking. As a result of this, sandcrete block lls, adobe or wattle and daub are commonly used in various climatic zones. The picture is not better with respect to roofing materials in common use. For example, galvanized iron sheet and dirty. Similarly asbestos – cement roofing sheets absorb as high as 61% of heat, which increases to 83% when old and dirty (Komolafe, 1988). Generally, the problem is not what is thermally desirable and efficient, but what is readily available and
  • 5. Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225 Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 3.6 Green Architecture Green architecture refers to the creation or restructuring of buildings so that they have a minimal impact on the environment. There are a number of different approaches to green construction, the responsible recycling of existing resources along with the efficient use of environmentally friendly systems to provide water and power services to buildings that are created using a sustainable design. As more people have become concerned about the wise use of the planet's resources, the concept of green architecture has gained in both acceptability and interest. Generally, a green architect will attempt to design or overhaul buildings so that they provide all the necessary functions but do not pose a great threat to the surrounding environment. In many cases, this means using building materials that are composed of organic compounds rather than synthetics. The building material may be wood, bricks, or other elements th demolition. These harvested materials are joined with newer technology to create structures that fit into the surrounding landscape with greater ease and make the best use of availed resources for heating and water supply to the edifice. The use of solar panels is a common element of green architecture. The panels, along with their storage tanks, make it possible to store energy for electrical needs such as cooking, keeping the temperature in the building at a comfortable level, and running necessary equipment such as computer. In recent years, coupling of a solar energy system with a wind system has been experimented with, effectively drawing on two renewable resources to create energy to Another important aspect of green design is the strategic placement of windows around the facing of the building. Ideally, the windows are placed so that the most efficient use of sunligh to decreasing the demand for artificial light during the daytime, the windows can also serve as a means of allowing the natural sunlight to provide a degree of warmth to the interior of the building. This in turn m possible to utilize less of the stored solar or wind energy to keep the space at an equitable temperature. Depending on the placement of the building and its intended purpose, other aspects of green architecture may be included. The building may be recessed partially into the side of a hill, thus providing natural insulation. Composting toilets may be the ideal solution in areas where water is hard to come by (Sustainable Architecture, 2010). Finding ways to use whatever elements are native to the a with nature, such as creating blocks using local sand rather than shipping in bricks constructed elsewhere. While the process of creating green architecture may be more deficient in some areas, there is no do any structure can be altered or designed to be more environmentally friendly. 3.7 Green Architecture and Climate Change It is estimated that at present, buildings contribute as much as one third of total global annual greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through the use of fossil fuel during their operational phase and consumes up to 40% of all energy (Adeleke, 2010). This includes energy used in the production and transportation of materials to building construction sites, as well as the energy used to operate buildings. Given the massive growth in new construction in economies in transition, and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is done, greenhouse gas emissions from buildings will more than double in Green architecture is creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource efficient throughout a building's life renovation and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability and comfort (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). Green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the bu This is achieved by efficiently using energy, water and other resources, protecting occupants' heath and improving employees' productivity and reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradat efficiency and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions must be the foundation of every national climatic change strategy and incorporated into all development plans including those pertaining to building policy (Obot, 2010). 3.8 The Architect in Combating Climate Change The Architect as a key player in the Building Industry, play a very vital role in combating the effect of climate change on the built environment. According to Omotoso, (2011),the Architect can contribute to the reduction of the energy and demand on resources associated with construction and operation of buildings by the followings: • Incorporating existing buildings and structures into design schemes as much as possible instead of demolishing such buildings and structures to ma • Collaborating with Mechanical and Electrical Engineers to design for reduced consumption of energy in Journal of Environment and Earth Science 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) 5 Green architecture refers to the creation or restructuring of buildings so that they have a minimal impact on the environment. There are a number of different approaches to green construction, with many of the ideas involving the responsible recycling of existing resources along with the efficient use of environmentally friendly systems to provide water and power services to buildings that are created using a sustainable design. As more people have become concerned about the wise use of the planet's resources, the concept of green architecture has gained in both acceptability and interest. Generally, a green architect will attempt to design or overhaul buildings so that ssary functions but do not pose a great threat to the surrounding environment. In many cases, this means using building materials that are composed of organic compounds rather than synthetics. The building material may be wood, bricks, or other elements that are harvested from older buildings scheduled for demolition. These harvested materials are joined with newer technology to create structures that fit into the surrounding landscape with greater ease and make the best use of availed resources for heating and water supply to the edifice. The use of solar panels is a common element of green architecture. The panels, along with their storage tanks, make it possible to store energy for electrical needs such as cooking, keeping the e in the building at a comfortable level, and running necessary equipment such as computer. In recent years, coupling of a solar energy system with a wind system has been experimented with, effectively drawing on two renewable resources to create energy to meet the demands of modern life (Sustainable Architecture, 2010). Another important aspect of green design is the strategic placement of windows around the facing of the building. Ideally, the windows are placed so that the most efficient use of sunlight during the day takes place. In addition to decreasing the demand for artificial light during the daytime, the windows can also serve as a means of allowing the natural sunlight to provide a degree of warmth to the interior of the building. This in turn m possible to utilize less of the stored solar or wind energy to keep the space at an equitable temperature. Depending on the placement of the building and its intended purpose, other aspects of green architecture may be recessed partially into the side of a hill, thus providing natural insulation. Composting toilets may be the ideal solution in areas where water is hard to come by (Sustainable Architecture, 2010). Finding ways to use whatever elements are native to the area also helps to keep the structure in balance with nature, such as creating blocks using local sand rather than shipping in bricks constructed elsewhere. While the process of creating green architecture may be more deficient in some areas, there is no do any structure can be altered or designed to be more environmentally friendly. Green Architecture and Climate Change It is estimated that at present, buildings contribute as much as one third of total global annual greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through the use of fossil fuel during their operational phase and consumes up to 40% of all energy (Adeleke, 2010). This includes energy used in the production and transportation of materials to building the energy used to operate buildings. Given the massive growth in new construction in economies in transition, and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is done, greenhouse gas emissions from buildings will more than double in the next few years. Green architecture is creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource efficient throughout a building's life - cycle, from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, n and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability and comfort (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). Green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment. This is achieved by efficiently using energy, water and other resources, protecting occupants' heath and improving employees' productivity and reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradat efficiency and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions must be the foundation of every national climatic change strategy and incorporated into all development plans including those pertaining to building policy (Obot, ct in Combating Climate Change The Architect as a key player in the Building Industry, play a very vital role in combating the effect of climate change on the built environment. According to Omotoso, (2011),the Architect can contribute to the reduction of the energy and demand on resources associated with construction and operation of buildings by the followings: Incorporating existing buildings and structures into design schemes as much as possible instead of demolishing such buildings and structures to make way for new buildings. Collaborating with Mechanical and Electrical Engineers to design for reduced consumption of energy in www.iiste.org Green architecture refers to the creation or restructuring of buildings so that they have a minimal impact on the with many of the ideas involving the responsible recycling of existing resources along with the efficient use of environmentally friendly systems to provide water and power services to buildings that are created using a sustainable design. As more people have become concerned about the wise use of the planet's resources, the concept of green architecture has gained in both acceptability and interest. Generally, a green architect will attempt to design or overhaul buildings so that ssary functions but do not pose a great threat to the surrounding environment. In many cases, this means using building materials that are composed of organic compounds rather than synthetics. The at are harvested from older buildings scheduled for demolition. These harvested materials are joined with newer technology to create structures that fit into the surrounding landscape with greater ease and make the best use of availed resources for heating, cooling, cooking and water supply to the edifice. The use of solar panels is a common element of green architecture. The panels, along with their storage tanks, make it possible to store energy for electrical needs such as cooking, keeping the e in the building at a comfortable level, and running necessary equipment such as computer. In recent years, coupling of a solar energy system with a wind system has been experimented with, effectively drawing on meet the demands of modern life (Sustainable Architecture, 2010). Another important aspect of green design is the strategic placement of windows around the facing of the building. t during the day takes place. In addition to decreasing the demand for artificial light during the daytime, the windows can also serve as a means of allowing the natural sunlight to provide a degree of warmth to the interior of the building. This in turn makes it possible to utilize less of the stored solar or wind energy to keep the space at an equitable temperature. Depending on the placement of the building and its intended purpose, other aspects of green architecture may be recessed partially into the side of a hill, thus providing natural insulation. Composting toilets may be the ideal solution in areas where water is hard to come by (Sustainable Architecture, rea also helps to keep the structure in balance with nature, such as creating blocks using local sand rather than shipping in bricks constructed elsewhere. While the process of creating green architecture may be more deficient in some areas, there is no doubt that just about It is estimated that at present, buildings contribute as much as one third of total global annual greenhouse gas emissions, primarily through the use of fossil fuel during their operational phase and consumes up to 40% of all energy (Adeleke, 2010). This includes energy used in the production and transportation of materials to building the energy used to operate buildings. Given the massive growth in new construction in economies in transition, and the inefficiencies of existing building stock worldwide, if nothing is done, Green architecture is creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource - cycle, from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, n and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability and comfort (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). Green buildings are ilt environment on human health and the natural environment. This is achieved by efficiently using energy, water and other resources, protecting occupants' heath and improving employees' productivity and reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation. Energy efficiency and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions must be the foundation of every national climatic change strategy and incorporated into all development plans including those pertaining to building policy (Obot, The Architect as a key player in the Building Industry, play a very vital role in combating the effect of climate change on the built environment. According to Omotoso, (2011),the Architect can contribute to the reduction of the energy and demand on resources associated with construction and operation of buildings by the followings: Incorporating existing buildings and structures into design schemes as much as possible instead of Collaborating with Mechanical and Electrical Engineers to design for reduced consumption of energy in
  • 6. Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225 Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 buildings. • Specifying recyclable, reusable, local, natural, durable and environmental friendly building materials. • Creating high performance buildings that take maximum advantage of natural ventilation and lighting. • Planning cities, part of cities and neighbourhoods in such a manner that people can live and work and take leisure within a single environment. • Preserving biologically rich landscapes in master planning. The Architect can contribute to the mitigation of the current and future effects of climate change on the built environment by: • Improved planning and building design to reduce urban heat and temperature rise. Urban popul will want more access to outdoor natural open spaces as temperatures rise. • Climate modification using plants, siting of buildings and using different surface materials and topographic features either as they exist or as they could be constructed. • Use of plants to enclose and modulate spaces of roads, buildings and forms. • Extensive use of trees to shade buildings, people and road surfaces from solar radiation and reduce air pollution and ameliorate temperature. • Use of vertical louvers, projecting fins, louvers, slates, concrete and metal grills to control sun penetration. • Collaborating with members of the design team and the client to develop and update construction designs that provide increased humidity, levels of precipitation, wind speeds and frequency of extreme weather events. 4.0 Conclusion Architecture is crucial in the present and future development of a country. As the there is an urgent need to adopt green building standards. This will ensure not just cost also healthier and more productive living environment (Adeleke, 2010). It can make a major contribution to the pressing search to devise ways of life that are less taxing on the earth's resources, the relationship of buildings to their environment, their location with regard to public amenities, the burden their occupants will place on road networks are issues that will determine a building's green thumbprint. The parameter of sustainable and environmentally friendly architecture is wide and the ability to control living environments exists as never before. Since buildings have a long life, the effects of decisio felt for many years to come. Thus, low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients and developers who claim to be producing quality buildings since quality requires that today’s buildings not only meet the needs of the present occupants but also be an asset rather than a liability for our children and future generations. The following recommendations therefore become very necessary • Architects, engineers and developers make a decis environmentally friendly buildings. At present, what we need is a new generation of buildings: low in energy consumption and environmentally friendly, that will set new standards in our urban centres. • Environmental welfare that this will lead to reduction in CO2 emission, create better Environments and help us to move towards sustainable development should be encouraged. • As building professionals, we must take a keen interest in green buildings and a architecture of the 21st Century is about environmental design. • Government should take the leading role to facilitate and encourage best environmental practice. So much so that practically all the new government buildings should be should be good case studies for “green” building principles. • It is important that the government moves to the forefront and be seen to guide the construction industry by developing comprehensive targets to counter the challenge • Low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients and developers To achieve this, we must ‘touch this earth lightly’. References Adeleke, K. (2010): Green Building Codes Architects Colloquium organised by The Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, March, 2010. Journal of Environment and Earth Science 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) 6 Specifying recyclable, reusable, local, natural, durable and environmental friendly building materials. performance buildings that take maximum advantage of natural ventilation and lighting. Planning cities, part of cities and neighbourhoods in such a manner that people can live and work and take leisure within a single environment. rich landscapes in master planning. The Architect can contribute to the mitigation of the current and future effects of climate change on the built Improved planning and building design to reduce urban heat and temperature rise. Urban popul will want more access to outdoor natural open spaces as temperatures rise. Climate modification using plants, siting of buildings and using different surface materials and topographic features either as they exist or as they could be constructed. of plants to enclose and modulate spaces of roads, buildings and forms. Extensive use of trees to shade buildings, people and road surfaces from solar radiation and reduce air pollution and ameliorate temperature. Use of vertical louvers, projecting fins, projecting eaves, horizontal canopy or awning, horizontal louvers, slates, concrete and metal grills to control sun penetration. Collaborating with members of the design team and the client to develop and update construction designs that provide increased durability and reliability in the face of changing temperature, relative humidity, levels of precipitation, wind speeds and frequency of extreme weather events. Architecture is crucial in the present and future development of a country. As the number of buildings multiplies, there is an urgent need to adopt green building standards. This will ensure not just cost- also healthier and more productive living environment (Adeleke, 2010). It can make a major contribution to the pressing search to devise ways of life that are less taxing on the earth's resources, the relationship of buildings to their environment, their location with regard to public amenities, the burden their occupants will place on road t will determine a building's green thumbprint. The parameter of sustainable and environmentally friendly architecture is wide and the ability to control living environments exists as never before. Since buildings have a long life, the effects of decisio felt for many years to come. Thus, low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients and developers who claim to be producing quality buildings since quality requires that uildings not only meet the needs of the present occupants but also be an asset rather than a liability for The following recommendations therefore become very necessary Architects, engineers and developers make a decisive attempt to combat global warming by putting up environmentally friendly buildings. At present, what we need is a new generation of buildings: low in energy consumption and environmentally friendly, that will set new standards in our urban centres. ironmental welfare that this will lead to reduction in CO2 emission, create better Environments and help us to move towards sustainable development should be encouraged. As building professionals, we must take a keen interest in green buildings and always remember that the architecture of the 21st Century is about environmental design. Government should take the leading role to facilitate and encourage best environmental practice. So much so that practically all the new government buildings should be environmentally friendly and should be good case studies for “green” building principles. It is important that the government moves to the forefront and be seen to guide the construction industry by developing comprehensive targets to counter the challenges of Climate Change. Low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients and developers To achieve this, we must ‘touch this earth lightly’. Adeleke, K. (2010): Green Building Codes - A Priority for Sustainable Development. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organised by The Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, March, 2010. www.iiste.org Specifying recyclable, reusable, local, natural, durable and environmental friendly building materials. performance buildings that take maximum advantage of natural ventilation and lighting. Planning cities, part of cities and neighbourhoods in such a manner that people can live and work and The Architect can contribute to the mitigation of the current and future effects of climate change on the built Improved planning and building design to reduce urban heat and temperature rise. Urban population Climate modification using plants, siting of buildings and using different surface materials and Extensive use of trees to shade buildings, people and road surfaces from solar radiation and reduce air projecting eaves, horizontal canopy or awning, horizontal Collaborating with members of the design team and the client to develop and update construction durability and reliability in the face of changing temperature, relative humidity, levels of precipitation, wind speeds and frequency of extreme weather events. number of buildings multiplies, -effective buildings but also healthier and more productive living environment (Adeleke, 2010). It can make a major contribution to the pressing search to devise ways of life that are less taxing on the earth's resources, the relationship of buildings to their environment, their location with regard to public amenities, the burden their occupants will place on road The parameter of sustainable and environmentally friendly architecture is wide and the ability to control living environments exists as never before. Since buildings have a long life, the effects of decisions made today will be felt for many years to come. Thus, low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients and developers who claim to be producing quality buildings since quality requires that uildings not only meet the needs of the present occupants but also be an asset rather than a liability for ive attempt to combat global warming by putting up environmentally friendly buildings. At present, what we need is a new generation of buildings: low in energy consumption and environmentally friendly, that will set new standards in our urban centres. ironmental welfare that this will lead to reduction in CO2 emission, create better-Built Environments and help us to move towards sustainable development should be encouraged. lways remember that the Government should take the leading role to facilitate and encourage best environmental practice. So environmentally friendly and It is important that the government moves to the forefront and be seen to guide the construction industry s of Climate Change. Low environmental impact should be a built in feature of building design by all professionals, clients y for Sustainable Development. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organised by The Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, March, 2010.
  • 7. Journal of Environment and Earth Science ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225 Vol. 3, No.4, 2013 Bulkeley H., Schroeder H., Janda K., Zhao J., Armstrong A., Chu S.Y and Ghosh S.: Report prepared for the World Bank Urban Symposium on Climate Change. Komolafe, L. K. (1988): "Influence of Climate on Building Design and Thermal Performance Assessment of Some Construction Materials" in Ten Years of Building and Road Research. Edited by G. N. Omange, NBRRI, Lagos. pp 95-108. Obot, E. A. (2010): Architects and Global Warming. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organized by The Nigerian Institute of Architects, Abuja. March. 2010 Odeleye, A. (1989): "The Design of Buildings for Comfort in the Nigeria Seminar on "Architecture, Climate and Environment" organized by The Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute in Lagos. October. Odjugo PAO (2010). General overview of climate change impacts in Nigeria. J. Human Ecol. Omotoso, A. J. (2011): The role of the Architect in Managing the Effect of Climate Change. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organised by Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, June, 2011 Satterthwaite, D. Hug, S. Pelling, M. Series; Adapting to Climate change in Urban Areas nations.ISBN: 978-1-84369-669-8. Sustainable Architecture (2010): What Is Gre http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/greenbuilding. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009). Green Building Home. Retrieved http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm Vidal,J.(2007, June28). Burgeoning cities face catastrophe, says UN, Journal of Environment and Earth Science 3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) 7 Bulkeley H., Schroeder H., Janda K., Zhao J., Armstrong A., Chu S.Y and Ghosh S.: Report prepared the World Bank Urban Symposium on Climate Change. Komolafe, L. K. (1988): "Influence of Climate on Building Design and Thermal Performance Assessment of Some Construction Materials" in Ten Years of Building and Road Research. Edited by G. N. Omange, NBRRI, Obot, E. A. (2010): Architects and Global Warming. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organized by The Nigerian Institute of Architects, Abuja. March. 2010 Odeleye, A. (1989): "The Design of Buildings for Comfort in the Nigerian Climate." Paper presented at the Seminar on "Architecture, Climate and Environment" organized by The Nigerian Building and Road Research Odjugo PAO (2010). General overview of climate change impacts in Nigeria. J. Human Ecol. Omotoso, A. J. (2011): The role of the Architect in Managing the Effect of Climate Change. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organised by Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, June, 2011 Satterthwaite, D. Hug, S. Pelling, M. Reid, H. and Lankao, P.M.(2007): Human Settlements Discussion paper Series; Adapting to Climate change in Urban Areas- The possibilities and constraints in low and middle income Sustainable Architecture (2010): What Is Green Architecture? Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/greenbuilding. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/greenbuilding. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009). Green Building Home. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/components.htm Burgeoning cities face catastrophe, says UN, The Guardian. www.iiste.org Bulkeley H., Schroeder H., Janda K., Zhao J., Armstrong A., Chu S.Y and Ghosh S.: Report prepared Komolafe, L. K. (1988): "Influence of Climate on Building Design and Thermal Performance Assessment of Some Construction Materials" in Ten Years of Building and Road Research. Edited by G. N. Omange, NBRRI, Obot, E. A. (2010): Architects and Global Warming. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organized by n Climate." Paper presented at the Seminar on "Architecture, Climate and Environment" organized by The Nigerian Building and Road Research Odjugo PAO (2010). General overview of climate change impacts in Nigeria. J. Human Ecol., 29(1): 47-55. Omotoso, A. J. (2011): The role of the Architect in Managing the Effect of Climate Change. Paper presented at the Architects Colloquium organised by Nigerian Institute of Architects in Abuja, June, 2011 Reid, H. and Lankao, P.M.(2007): Human Settlements Discussion paper The possibilities and constraints in low and middle income
  • 8. This academic article was published by The International Institute for Science, Technology and Education (IISTE). The IISTE is a pioneer in the Open Access Publishing service based in the U.S. and Europe. The aim of the institute is Accelerating Global Knowledge Sharing. More information about the publisher can be found in the IISTE’s homepage: http://www.iiste.org CALL FOR PAPERS The IISTE is currently hosting more than 30 peer-reviewed academic journals and collaborating with academic institutions around the world. There’s no deadline for submission. Prospective authors of IISTE journals can find the submission instruction on the following page: http://www.iiste.org/Journals/ The IISTE editorial team promises to the review and publish all the qualified submissions in a fast manner. All the journals articles are available online to the readers all over the world without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. Printed version of the journals is also available upon request of readers and authors. IISTE Knowledge Sharing Partners EBSCO, Index Copernicus, Ulrich's Periodicals Directory, JournalTOCS, PKP Open Archives Harvester, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine, Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB, Open J-Gate, OCLC WorldCat, Universe Digtial Library , NewJour, Google Scholar