2. 1. To be familiar with the different parts of a
neuron, as well as it types and functions.
2. To be able to trace how neurons communicate
with one another.
3. To be familiar with different parts of the nervous
system and their functions
4. To identify parts of the endocrine system and
their influence in human behavior
3. Neurons are the information-processing and
information- transmitting element of the nervous
system
They come in different shapes
They may also be classified according to their
major functions
4. Sensory neurons - They gather information from
the environment and transmit them to the brain
Motor neurons - Those that accomplish
movement of the muscles
Interneurons - Can be found in the central
nervous system; responsible for perceiving,
learning, remembering, planning, and deciding
among other important neural activities
5.
6. Soma- Contains the nucleus and other parts that
are responsible proving the life processes of the
cell.
Dendrites- Tree-like structures that serve as the
recipient of messages coming from the neighboring
neurons.
Axon- The axon is a long slender tube, covered by
a fatty insulator called the myelin sheath, that
carries information from the cell body to the
terminal button.
Bundles of axons constitute nerves
7.
8. Terminal Buttons - Knob-like structures at the
end of the axon’s twigs.
Action potential- brief electrical/ chemical
event.
The transmission of the messages occurs in the
synapse, a junction between the terminal buttons
of the sending cell and a portion of the somatic or
dendritic membrane of the receiving cell.
9.
10. Terminal Buttons release chemicals known as
neurotransmitters or transmitter
substances
Neurotransmitters may be classified into two:
excitatory or inhibitory
15. A neuron fires an impulse when it receives signals
from sense receptors that are stimulated by
pressure, heat or light, or when it is simulated by
chemical messages from adjacent neurons
If these signals exceed a minimum intensity,
called the threshold, they trigger an impulse.
The impulse, called the action potential, is a
brief electrical charge the travels down to the
axon.
16. The neuron’s reaction is an all-or-none response,
meaning they either fire or not.
A stronger stimulus cannot trigger a stronger or
faster impulse, but they can trigger more neuron
to fire.
When the Action potential reaches the terminals at
an axons end, it triggers the release of chemical
messengers, called neurotransmitters , onto the
synapse – a gap between axons and dendrites
of adjacent neurons.
17. These neurotransmitter molecules cross the
synaptic gap and bind to the receptor site on the
dendrites of the receiving neuron.
This allows electrically charged atoms to enter the
receiving neuron and excite or inhibit a new action
potential.
18. Dopamine influences movement, learning, attention, and
emotion.
Serotonin affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.
Norepinephrine helps control alertness and arousal.
Gamma-aminobyutric acid (GABA) inhibitory functions
and is sometime implicated in eating and sleep disorders.
Acetylcholine works on neurons in muscle action, learning
and memory.
Endorphins are released in response to pain and vigorous
exercise.
19. The nerve impulse can be excitatory; It prompts
the adjacent neuron to fire.
An impulse can also be inhibitory; it prevents the
adjacent neuron to fire
20.
21. All-or-non law - An action potential either occurs or
does not occurs, and is always in constant strength.
Rate law - A high rate of firing causes a strong
muscular contraction and an intense odor causes a
high rate of firing in the axon the serves the nose.
Saltatory conduction - action potentials are only
conducted in a hopping fashion in the nodes of
Ronvier
22.
23.
24. Reuptake - a rapid removal of neurotransmitter
from the synaptic cleft by the terminal buttons
Enzymatic deactivation - enzymes destroy
some neurotransmitter molecules into its
constituents
25. The rate an axon fires is determined by the
relative activity of the excitatory and inhibitory
synapses on the soma and dendrites of that cell
The interaction of these activities is referred to as
neural integration
If the activity of the excitatory synapses goes up,
the rate of firing will go up. If the activity of
inhibitory synapses goes up, the rate of firing will
go down
26.
27. Neuromodulators - chemicals released by
neurons in larger amounts and diffused for the
longer distances, modulating the activity of many
neurons in a particular part of the brain
Hormones secreted by endocrine glands
Hormones affect the activity of the cells that
contain specialized receptors, called target cells
Many neurons contain hormone receptors, thus
influencing their activity
28.
29. Anterior or Rostral- front end
Posterior or Caudal – the tail
Dorsal- the back surface
Ventral- front surface
Lateral-toward the side
Medial- toward the midline
Ipsilateral – same side of the body
Contralateral- opposite sides of the body
Cross section- slice transversely
Horizontal section-slice parallel to the ground (the
brain)
Sagittal section- slice perpendicular to the ground and
parallel to the neuroaxis
32. The brain is encased in a skull
Floats in a pool of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Chemically protected by the blood brain barrier
33. Dura mater (the hard mother)
Archnoid membrane – not found in PNS
Pia mater ( pious mother) - contains surface
blood vessels and follows the surface convolution
of the brain
Subarachnoid space - gap filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
34. MAJOR DIVISION SUBDIVISION PRINCIPAL
STRUCTURE
Forebrain Telencephalon Cerebrum/ Cerebral
cortex
Basal ganglia
Limbic System
Diencephalon Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Midbrain Mesencephalon Tectum/Tegmentum
Hindbrain Metencephalon Cerebellum
Pons
Myelencephalon Medulla Oblangata
35.
36. Cerebrum, covered by the cerebral cortex
Limbic system
Basal ganglia
37. Two cerebral hemispheres
Glia, cell bodies, dendrite, and interconnecting
axons of neurons
Called the “gray matter”
The cerebral hemisphere can be divided into four
areas
38. Lobes Regions / Areas
Frontal Lobe Primary motor cortex, Motor association
cortex
Parietal Lobe Primary somatosensory cortex,
somatosensory association cortex
Occipital Lobe Primary visual cortex, Visual association
cortex
Temporal Lobe Primary auditory cortex, Auditory
association cortex
39. With the exemption for the olfactory sense, all
information from the body or the environment is
sent to the primary sensory cortex of the
contralateral (opposite) hemisphere.
43. The left hemisphere is concerned with analysis
The right hemisphere is specialized for synthesis
Two hemispheres are unified by the corpus
callosum
44. Cerebrum, covered by the cerebral cortex
Limbic system
Basal ganglia
45. The amygdala is involved in the experience of
emotion
The hippocampus is involved in learning and
memory
46.
47. Cerebrum, covered by the cerebral cortex
Limbic system
Basal ganglia
48. A collection of nuclei (groups of neurons of
similar shape) deep within the forebrain
Involved in the control of movement
54. Controls the automatic nervous system and the
endocrine system
Behaviors related to survival of the species, such
as fighting, feeding and mating
55.
56. Inferior colliculi - part of the auditory system
Superior colliculi - part of the visual system;
involved in visual reflexes and reaction to moving
objects
57. Reticular formation - plays role in sleep and
arousal, attention, muscle tonus, movement and
various vital reflexes
Periaqueductal gray matter - contains
neural circuits that control sequences of
movements such as fighting and mating.
58. From the red nucleus emerges one of two major
fiber systems that bring motor information from the
cerebral cortex and cerebellum to the spinal cord
The degeneration of neuron in the substantia
nigra is responsible for Parkinson’s disease
63. The “little brain”
Attached to the dorsal surface of the pons by bundles of
axons
Facilitates standing, walking or performance of
coordinated movement, such as playing a musical
instrument
Receives and integrates visual, auditory, vestibular and
somatosensory information about individual muscle
movements and modifies the motor outflow by exerting
a coordinating and smoothing effect on the movements.
64. Contains portion of the reticular formation -
important in sleep and arousal
Also contains a large nucleus that relays
information from the cerebral cortex to the
cerebellum
65. Medulla oblongata
Contains part of the reticular formation
As well as nuclei that controls vital function such
as regulation of cardiovascular system,
respiration, and skeletal muscle tonus
66. A long, conical structure, approximately as thick
as our little finger
Distributes motor axons
Collects somatosensory information
Functions independently - reflexive control
circuits
67. Housed by the vertebral column
24 individual vertebrae
cervical (neck)
thoracic (chest)
lumbar (lower back)
sacral and coccygeal portions
68.
69. Spinal Nerves
Cranial Nerves - serve sensory and motor
functions of the head and the neck region
70.
71.
72.
73. Somatic nervous system - control movements
of the muscles and to send sensory information
from the sensory organs to the brain
Autonomic nervous system - control of
smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands
74. Sympathetic nervous system – expenditure of
energy from the reserves that are stored in the
body
Thoracolumbar system
Parasympathetic nervous system - activities
that are involved with the increase in the body’s
supply of stored energy
Craniosacral system
75.
76.
77. Endocrine glands
Processes that happen slowly, such as cell
growth, regulation of mood
Produces and secretes or give off chemicals -
hormones
Communicates messages, information and
instructions to other group of cells
78.
79. Travel through the bloodstream to target cells (of
body organs)
Target cells have receptors that latch only
onto specific hormones
When hormone level reach a certain normal or
necessary amount, further secretion is controlled
by important body mechanisms - negative
feedback system
80. The primary link between the
endocrine and nervous systems
Controls the pituitary gland
Releasing hormones - signal
the pituitary gland to secrete
stimulating hormones
Somatostatin - causes the
pituitary gland to stop the release
of growth hormone
81. “Master gland” because it makes hormones that
control several other endocrine glands
Can be influenced by factors such as emotions and
seasonal changes
Hypothalamus relays these information
anterior lobe , posterior lobe
82. Regulates the activity of the thyroid, adrenals, and
reproductive glands
Growth hormone
Prolactin
Thyrotropin
Corticotrophin
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Leutinizing hormone
Endorphins
Gonadotropic hormones
84. Shaped like a bowtie or butterfly
Thyroxine , triiodothyronine - regulate
metabolism; body temperature and weight
Iodine
If iodine lacks in his/her diet, the thyroid cannot
make the hormones – Goiter
Calcitonin - regulation (reduction) of calcium
level in the blood
85. Secrete parathyroid hormone, or
parathormone
Parathormone - regulation
(increase) of calcium level in the
blood
Hypoparathyroidism - insufficient
secretion of parathyroid hormone
leading to increased nerve
excitability.
87. corticosteroids such as cortisone - influences
or regulates salt and water balance in the body;
body’s response to stress, metabolism, the
immune system and sexual development
88. Steroid hormones in three classes:
Mineralocorticoids maintain electrolyte balance
Glucocorticoids produce a long-term, slow
response to stress by raising blood glucose level
through the breakdown of fats and proteins
Sex hormones
89. Catecholamines, such as epinephrine -
increases blood pressure and heart rate when the
body experiences stress
90. Stimulated by the nerves from the eye
Melatonin - a hormone that may help regulate
the wake-sleep cycle (circadian rhythm)
Secreted at night, when it is dark
Depressing the activity of the gonads
Affects thyroid and adrenal cortex functions
Seasonal affective disorder
91. Main source of sex hormones
Testes located in the scrotum
Ovaries, are located in the pelvis
92. Androgens most important of which is
testosterone
regulate body changes associated with sexual
development
supports the production of sperm
93. Produce eggs
Estrogen - involved in the development of
female sexual features
Progesterone - causes the uterine lining to
thicken in preparation for pregnancy
Estrogen and progesterone - pregnancy and
the regulation of the menstrual cycle
94. Islets of Langerhans
Glucagon - tells the liver to take carbohydrate
out of storage to raise a low blood sugar level
Insulin - tells the liver to take excess glucose out
of circulation to lower a blood’s sugar level that’s
too high
Diabetes mellitus