Nepal infrastructure journal of ser de-n 2013

A Journal on Rural Infrastructure Development
Society of Engineersʼ for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN)
Vol. 4, Issue 4, Bhadra 2070
LocalInfrastructureforLivelihoodImprovementLILI
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LILIProgrammeSupportUnit,Jawalakhel,Lalitpur,GPOBox688,Kathmandu,Nepal
Tel:++977(0)15529929/5000027,Fax:015524991
E-mail:lili@helvetas.org.nphttp://www.helvetasnepal.org.np/lili.htm

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We would like to congratulate to our Immediate Past President (Executive Member)
Er. Bhupendra Bahadur Basnet, Director General, DoLIDAR
for his remarkable professional achievements and getting NEA prestigious award
"Martial Nawaraj Bista Memorial Award"
on the auspicious occasion of 51st Engineers’Day 2070 celebration.
Society of Engineers for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN)
Hearty Congratulation

AND
Believes,isonthesameboatwithSERDeN:“BESTWISHES”.
DistrictRoadSupportProgram(DRSP)
ProgramSupportUnit(PSU)
DistrictRoadSupportProgram(DRSP)
ProgramSupportUnit(PSU)

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"WE EXPRESS OUR HEARTY GREETINGS
FOR THE SUCCESS OF DoLIDAR DAY
AND
THE SEMINAR ON
ENHANCEMENT OF QUALITY IN
RURAL INFRASTRUCTURE"

An Overview of
Rural Access Improvement and Decentralization Project (RAIDP)
Project Districts: (58 district): -
Road and Trail Bridge districts: (30) - Only Trail Bridge districts: (28 )
Objective of the Project:
The project development objective is for
resident of participating district of the
recipient to utilize improved rural trans-
port infrastructure and services in order to
have enhanced access to social services
and economic opportunities.
Project Starting Date: August 15, 2005
Project Closing Date: December 31, 2013
Major Component of the Project:
Total Project Cost & Expenditure
Total Project Cost: 81.50 Million USD
• IDA Financing: 77 (original 32+ AF 45)
Million USD
• GoN Financing: 4.5 million USD
Total Expenditure
as of July 15, 2013 : 5349 Million NRs.
Physical Target and Progress
Total Expenditure & Disbursement Status as of July 15, 2013
(a) Rural Transport Infrastructure Development:
- All weather roads in 30 districts
- Dry season roads in 7 districts
- Motorable bridge in 12 districts
- Trail Bridge construction 58 districts
- Community Infrastructure Program in 30 districts
- Rural Roads Maintenance in 30 districts
(b) Capacity Building and Advisory Services
(CBAS) Component:
- Training
- Rural Transport Service Study & Policy Development
- Planning
- Implementation Support
Project components
Upgrading/Rehabilitation of Existing Rural Roads (AWR)
Construction of motorable River Crossing
Construction of Trail bridges (TB)
Construction of Dry season roads in hill districts (DSR)
Community Infrastructure (CI)
Land transfer
InitialTarget
1165 km
10 nos
317 nos
211 km
RevisedTarget
1740 km
17 nos
705
150 km
647 nos
Progress as of July 15, 2013
1358 km
7 nos
564 nos
130 km
550 nos
193 hector

1
Patron
Er. Bhupendra Bahadur Basnet
Director General
Advisor
Er. Bhim Prasad Upadhyaya
Deputy Director General
Er. Ram Krishna Sapkota
Er. Jeevan Kumar Shrestha
Editors
Er. Uma Shankar Sah
Er. Binod Bhattarai
Er. Ishwar Chandra Marahatta
Er. Sudina Kuikel
Er. Nisha Rijal
Cover & Lay-out
M'sMouse
Putalisadak
msmouse@wlink.com.np
Poverty reduction and economic prosperity is the
ultimate goal of the nation. For this achievement, it
is necessary for all people to get the basic services.
Development of infrastructures like rural road network,
motorable bridges, water supply and sanitation
schemes, irrigation, trial bridges, school buildings and
community buildings has a significant role in achieving
the goal. The proper development of infrastructure in
rural areas improves rural economy and quality of life.
It promotes better productivity, increased agricultural
incomes, adequate employment, easy access for
health, education and market centers etc. Presently,
construction of rural infrastructures has been undergone
vigorously. Analyzing the present scenario it can be
felt that focus lies only on increasing the quantity of
such rural infrastructures. Good quality infrastructure
remains a major challenge for sustainable development.
It has to be understood that without proper attention on
quality aspect the infrastructure may fail to contribute in
awful development process rather end up with wasteful
spending. It is the duty of all development activists to
ensure quality of works and make it meaningful.
Society of Engineers for Rural Development, Nepal
(SERDeN) from its publication of “Rural Infrastructure”
journal has been continuously sharing ideas and
technology applicable for the rural development in Nepal
through different theme of the articles. It is our pleasure
to publish 4th issue of the “Rural Infrastructure” Journal.
We attempted to include the articles of every aspect of
rural development, with major focus on quality works
in this issue.
We would like to thank all the authors for the invaluable
articles provided, advertisers and everyone involved
in bringing this journal at this stage for their valuable
support, guidance, encouragement and help. We accept
of same in upcoming days.
Your valuable comments and suggestions will be highly
appreciated.
Note: The content within the articles in this journal are the views of Authors, that
is why the editorial board is not responsible for the content in the articles.
EDITORIAL
Publisher
Society of Engineers' for
Rural Development, Nepal
(SERDeN)
Pulchowk, Lalitpur
Email: serden.nepal@yahoo.com

2

3
Contents
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'Enhancement of Quality of Local Infrastructures' 8
Er.RamKrishnaSapkota
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g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df ;+a[l4 / phf{ 19
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RURAL ROAD NETWORK IN NEPAL: A MASSIVE CHALLANGE
AHEADTO IMPROVE & MAINTAIN 25
Er.HareRamShrestha
Ufl/jLsf ax' cfofd / lgjf/0fsf pkfo 34
/d]z s'df/ clwsf/L
Nepal Rural Road Standard 2055, 1st Revision 2069 38
Er.GangaBahadurBasnet
Small Irrigation Experiences in DoLIDAR/Local Bodies 42
Er.KumarThapa,SDE
Bridge Information Management System (BIMS)
and Its application in Local Road Bridge Building 47
Er.MadhavPrasadBhattarai
HariPokharel
g]kfndf ;/;kmfO tyf :jR5tfsf]] cj:yf, v'nf bL;f
d'Qm (Open Defecation Free) If]q 3f]if0ffsf] k|efj tyf
v'nf bL;f d'Qm If]q 3f]if0ff kZrft ug'{kg]{ sfo{x? 54
Er.LokNathRegmi
k|fs[lts >f]tsf] Joj:yfkgdf :yfgLo lgsfosf r'gf}tLx? 58
/d]zs'df/ s];L
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sfof{nosf] cGt/ ;DaGw 63
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An Overview of RRRSDP/ Lalitpur 67
Er.KamalJaishi
A method for road network definition in hilly areas of Nepal 72
Dr.Er.JagatK.Shrestha
Local Infrastructure for Livelihood Improvement (LILI) –
Project Introduction 78
Mr.BhagatBahadurBista
Quality Control Issues in RAIDP Sub-Projects 80
Er.ShankarPrasadPandit
Step forwards for Rural Road Maintenance 84
Er.MahesworGhimire
Overview of Rural Roads 88
Er.SahadevBahadurBhandari
:yfgLo ljsf; M l;4fGt / Jojxf/ 93
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OTTA SEAL EXPERIENCE IN NEPAL 97
Er.S.G.Joshi
Er.A.K.Jha
InnovativeWater SupplyTechnologies for Reaching
the Hard-to-Reach Population ofWestern Nepal 107
Er.ShankarPrasadPandit
GuneshwarPrasadMahato
Water Management: AVital Component for the
Sustainability of Rural Roads in Nepal 111
Er.SharadManandhar

4
Celebrating the Record: 5000+Trail Bridges in Nepal 119
TulasiNepal
Gender equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) –
A Key issue in the infrastructure Development 123
BamBahadurThapa
lghfdtL ;]jfdf ljs[lt / o;sf] lgoGq0f 126
6]s/fh kGyL
k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] ;d:of – Ps ;dLIff 130
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Practical Approaches toTransboundaryWater
Resources Sharing for Resilient South Asian Region 133
Er.BheshRajThapa
jf:t'zf:q 145
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The Existing Road Maintenance funds:
South Asia and Nepalese Contest 149
Er.RamParajuli
A Brief Introduction on Bus RapidTransit (BRT) 156
Er.RajuShrestha
Nepalese women and the Civil engineering profession 162
Er.SudinaKuikel
Er.NishaRijal
kfNkfsf] ;Gbe{df u|fdL0f ;8s ;Defjgf / r'gf}tLx? 166
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Effect ofTransportation on Construction
Project in Dolpa: A Case Study 169
Er.SurendraGhimire
Quality Control and Assurance System
inTrail Bridge Construction 174
Er.ReshamJungSingh
Er.SmitaSharmaSingh
Successful Experience of Land Acquisition for
Rural Road: An Anthropological Perspective 182
ShambhuPrasadKattel,Ph.D.
ACCESSTO NORTH-SOUTH ROADS AND
RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEPAL 188
Er.SantoshKumarGupta
“SOLIDWASTE MANAGEMENT IN KATHMANDU” 192
Er.RameshRanabhat
Needs of Infrastructure planning and Proper urbanization 201
Er.KamalNeupnae
Urgent Need of Procurement Management Information
System (PMIS) – For Improving Public Procurements 209
Er.ShreeRamDhakal
Water Safety Plan (WSP) for Sustainability
and Livelihood improvement 214
Er.GangaDattaNepal
Functionality and sustainability of the community
managed DWSS in Mid and Far-Western Region of Nepal 224
IndraRajBadu
Mobilization of Non-Government Organizations inWASH
Scheme Quality Improvement: Experiences of RuralVillage
Water Resources Management Project (Under DoLIDAR) 229
NarayanPrasadWagle
Cobble Stone Pavements; Green Pavement
Initiatives for LowVolume Rural Roads in Nepal 233
Er.RajeshSharma
RVWRMP is fulfilling the multiplethirst of
rural people in Bajura District 241
RajuShrestha
Micro Hydropower Project: As Rural Infrastructure as well as
Social Superstructure (Practical experiences from RVWRMP
supported Micro Hydropower Projects in FarWestern
Development Region, Nepal) 246
Er.RoshanBikramShah
Er.JanakBhattarai

5
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jt{dfg k|efjzfnL JolQmTjx?df cf]‌tk|f]‌t kfOG5 . k"j{hsf]‌ul/‌dfsf]‌hu]‌gf{df gof+k':tf klg tlNng b]‌lvG5g . ljZj
/‌+ud+rdf ef/‌tLox?sf]‌jr{Zj lg/‌Gt/‌a9b}‌5 . t/‌, ef/‌t ;+u;+u}‌h;f]‌%% jif{ cl3 k|hftGq cfPsf]‌elgPsf]‌
g]‌kfnsf]‌cj:yf eg]‌vl:sb}‌5 . g]‌kfn clxn]‌ljZjsf]‌6fpsf]‌b'vfO{ jg]‌sf]‌5, agfOsf]‌5 .
d'n's e'kl/‌j]‌li6t ePsf]‌n]‌ljsf; x'g ;s]‌g . ;fgf]‌d'n's 5, To;}‌n]‌sdhf]‌/‌x'g]‌eOxfNof]‌ . ljsf;sf nflu k"lh+sf]‌
sdL 5 . !& k|ltztdfq hldg v]‌tLof]‌Uo ;dy/‌ePsf]‌n]‌vfB pTkfbg klg yf]‌/‌}‌x'g]‌eOuof]‌ . kxf8L d'n's x'gfn]‌
v]‌tLjf/‌Ljf6 kof{Kt pJhgL ;Sb}‌g . ljh'nL, ;8s, 6]‌lnkmf]‌g, l;+rfOh:tf cTofjZos ef}‌lts ;+/‌rgf ljsf; ug{
O{= eLd k|;fb pkfWofo
pkdxflgb]{zs
:yfgLo k"jf{wf/ ljsf; tyf s[lif ;8s ljefu -8f]ln8f/_
g]‌kfn bl/‌b| x'gsf sf/‌0f /‌;d[4 kfg]‌{]‌{ h'StL

6
clt sl7gfO /‌dx+uf]‌k/‌]‌sf]‌5 . k|fljlws, bIf Pj+ lzlIft pRr:t/‌Lo hgzlQmsf]‌sdL /‌xb}‌cfPsf]‌5 . jiff{df
cfl>t v]‌tLk|0ffnLsf sf/‌0f dg;'g /‌v8]‌/‌Ln]‌j;]‌{gL s[lif pTkfbg clglZrt Pj+ k|lts"n x'G5 . cg]‌s hfthflt,
efiffefifL, wd{, j0f{Joj:yf, cf:yf, /‌fhgLlts ljrf/‌ljljwtf ePsf dflg;x? ePsf]‌d'n's x'gfn]‌;dGjo /‌
;fdGh:otf hf/‌L /‌fVg ufx|f]‌k/‌]‌sf]‌5 klg elgG5 . s]‌of]‌xf]‌t <
To:t}‌, cf}‌Bf}‌lus Pj+ k"lhut pTkfbgsf nflu cfjZos sRrf kbfy{sf]‌sdL ePsf]‌n]‌/‌f]‌huf/‌L ;[hgf ug{ ;lsPsf]‌
5}‌g . hg;+Vofsf]‌j[l4 /‌tLj| ;x/‌Ls/‌0fsf]‌;d:ofn]‌cdgrog /‌;fdflhs ;befj sfod ug{ xDd]‌kb}‌{ cfPsf]‌
5 . cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu vf+rf]‌x'g]‌ef}‌lts, cfly{s, ;fdflhs k"jf{wf/‌sf]‌;'ljwfx? 5}‌gg . bIf, lzlIft JolQmx?
cljsl;t e]‌sdf uO{ j:g jf sfd ug{ sf]‌xL dfGb}‌gg . g]‌kfnLx? Tolt j'l4 ePsf hft klg xf]‌Ogg . l5d]‌sL
d'n'sx?sf]‌xfdLk|lt sf]‌aqmb[li6 Pj+ x}‌sdjfbL Jojxf/‌gx6gfn]‌g]‌kfnnfO{ pGglt ug{ yk cK7of/‌]‌f kb}‌{ uPsf]‌]‌5
eGg]‌klg dflgG5 . s]‌of]‌xf]‌t <
o;}‌u/‌L, oxf ;/‌sf/‌x? cl:y/‌Pj+ l56f]‌l56f]‌kl/‌jt{g x'G5g . nfdf]‌;do;Dd Psdgf ;/‌sf/‌jGg /‌rNg ;s]‌g .
clt s]‌Gb|Ls[t zf;g k4lt 5 . oxfFsf g]‌tf, of]‌hgfsf/‌, kl/‌of]‌hgfsf/‌, j'l4hLjL, sd{rf/‌L, pBf]‌uklt, Jofkf/‌L,
gful/‌s ;dfhsf ;b:o Pj+ lhDd]‌jf/‌egfpbfx? ;a}‌oL o:tf algjgfp s'g}‌g s'g}‌sf/‌0f bzf{P/‌cfkmgf cIfdtf
/‌:jfy{dfly kbf{ xfNb}‌cfPsf 5g . s]‌;fRr}‌oL sf/‌sx?n]‌ubf{ g]‌kfn bl/‌b| /‌ oL sf/‌stTj Joxf]‌g'{ gk/‌]‌sfn]‌cGo
d'n'sx? ;d[4 ag]‌sf x'g t< To:tf]‌k'li6 x'b}‌g .
l5d]‌sL e"6fg klg e'kl/‌j]‌li6t ;fgf]‌b]‌z xf]‌, Toxf oxfFh:tf]‌k|hftflGqs zf;g /‌bIf hgzlQm klg 5}‌g . t/‌, p
g]‌kfn eGbf t]‌Aa/‌wgL 5 . o'/‌f]‌ksf bh{gf}‌d'n'sx? e'kl/‌j]‌li6t Pj+ ;fgf 5g t/‌, lgs}‌;d[4 5g . ljZjsf @))
;oeGbf a9L b]‌zdWo]‌cfsf/‌/‌hg;+Vofsf]‌lx;fjn]‌!%) d'n'sx? g]‌kfneGbf ;fgf ePklg wgL 5g . g]‌kfn ljZjdf
g cfsf/‌df, g hg;+Vofdf ;fgf]‌d'n's eGg ldN5 . e"kl/‌j]‌li6ttf /‌ul/‌aL, cfsf/‌/‌ul/‌aLaLr 7f]‌;, ;f]‌emf]‌;DjGw
klg /‌x]‌sf]‌ k|dfl0ft x'b}‌g .
hfkfg, l;+ufk'/‌, o'/‌f]‌ksf cg]‌sf}‌d'n'sh:tf ljZjsf sltko d'n'sx?df k|fs[lts >f]‌tx? 5}‌gg, t/‌tL wgL ePsf
5g . g]‌kfndf k|fs[lts >f]‌tsf]‌sdL 5}‌g, t/‌ul/‌a 5 . :jL6h/‌Nof08 klg ;fgf]‌e'kl/‌j]‌i7Lt kxf8L d'n's xf]‌
hxf, lgs}‌;Lldt hdLgdf s]‌jn jif{sf]‌$ dlxgf dfq v]‌tL ug{ ;+ej x'G5 . t/‌, p;n]‌lj:t[t Pj+ j}‌1flgs 9+udf
kz'kfng Jofj;fojf6 ljZj:t/‌Lo b'Uw ;fdfu|L pTkfbg u5{ . sf]‌sf]‌]‌cfsf]‌v]‌tL ToxfF x'b}‌g t/‌, ljb]‌zjf6 ToxL
sRrf kbfy{ cfoft u/‌L ljZjsf]‌pTs[i6 rsn]‌6sf]‌pTkfbs ub}‌{ ljZj ahf/‌cf]‌u6]‌sf]‌5 . hfkfg cfsf/‌df g]‌kfn
eGbf 9fO{u'0ff 7"nf]‌, % u'0ff w]‌/‌}‌ hg;+Vof ePsf]‌, ;/‌sf/‌ rf8f]‌rf8f]‌ kl/‌jt{g eO/‌xg]‌, g]‌kfnh:t}‌ k/‌Dk/‌fut k"jL{o
dfGotfsf]‌;fdflhs k2lt ePsf]‌kxf8L d'n's xf]‌ . k|fs[lts >f]‌t /‌sRrf kbfy{df p;nfO{ k|s[ltn]‌7u]‌sf]‌5 . t/‌,
k|foM;a}‌sRrf kbfy{x? cfoft}‌u/‌]‌/‌hfkfg ljZj:t/‌sf dfkb08sf ;fdfgx? pTkfbg Pj+ lgof{t u/‌L ljZjsf]‌7"nf]‌
cy{tGq ePsf]‌wgL d'n's aGg ;s]‌sf]‌]‌5 . k|fs[lts >f]‌t jf sRrf kbfy{ /‌v]‌tLof]‌Uo hldg kof{Kt gx'b}‌df, kxf8L
jf hg;+Vof w]‌/‌}‌x'b}‌df, b]‌z ul/‌j x'g'kb}‌{g . oL b]‌zx?n]‌k|dfl0ft u/‌]‌sf 5g .
ljsl;t hfkfg, cd]‌l/‌sf, j]‌nfot, /‌l;ofh:tf d'n'sdf k'u]‌sf g]‌kfn nufotsf ljsf;zLn Pj+ ul/‌j d'n'ssf
k|ltefzfnL hgzlQmn]‌cfkm"nfO{ k|lt:kwf{df pTs[i6 k|dfl0ft ub}‌{ ToxfFs}‌:yfoL jfl;Gbfx?nfO{ kl5 kf/‌]‌sf 5g .
g]‌kfnLx?sf]‌dl:tis /‌k|ltef lgDg:t/‌sf]‌5}‌g eGg]‌o;n]‌k'li6 u/‌]‌sf]‌5 . dl:tis Ifdtfdf wgL x'b}‌df d'n's ul/‌a
x'b}‌g eGg]‌o;jf6 lg:sif{ lg:sb}‌g .
k"lh+sf]‌sdL ljsl;t d'n's nufot hxfFklg 5 . ljZj ahf/‌df rnfodfg k"+lh hlt klg pknJw 5 . To; k+"lhnfO{

7
cfslif{s ug{ ;Sg]‌v'jL /‌jftfj/‌0f agfpg'df g}‌vf; ;d:of gLlxt 5 . k"lh hlxn]‌klg ;Ifd, bIf, r':t k|zf;g
Pj+ ;:tf]‌hgzlQm ePsf]‌:yfgtkm{ cfslif{s x'g]‌u5{ . rfxgf, OR5fzlQm x'g]‌/‌cg's"n jftfj/‌0f jgfpg ;s]‌]‌h;n]‌
klg ljZj ahf/‌df pknJw k+"lhnfO{ ca ;lhn}‌leqfpg ;S5 . e"d08nLs[t cy{tGqdf k+"lhsf]‌sdLsf]‌;d:of
oltj]‌nf 5b}‌+ 5}‌g .
1fg /‌k|ljlw gx'b}‌df ul/‌j xf]‌Ob}‌g eGg]‌k|df0f blIf0f sf]‌l/‌of xf]‌ . p;n]‌cfkmgf]‌;d[l4tkm{sf]‌ofqfsf]‌k|f/‌lDes r/‌0fdf
ljb]‌zL 1fg /‌k|ljlwsf]‌e/‌k"/‌cfoft u/‌]‌/‌pTkfbsTj /‌pTkfbg a9fpb}‌cfoftLt 1fg /‌k|ljlwnfO{ ;dofg's"n
:jb]‌zdf kl/‌is[t kf/‌]‌/‌wgL jg]‌sf]‌xf]‌ . k|ljlw cfoftdf Ps 8n/‌nufgL u/‌]‌/‌;sn /‌fli6«|o cfodf p;n]‌^) 8n/‌
clej[l4 ug{ ;Sof]‌ . ;xL Pj+ rgfvf]‌?kn]‌pkof]‌u ubf{ cfoftLt k|ljlw dx+uf]‌kb}‌{g .
;b'kof]‌u gu/‌]‌/‌, ug{ grfx]‌/‌jf ghfg]‌/‌xf]‌, g]‌kfndf bIf hgzlQmsf]‌sdL klg b]‌lvb}‌g . d'n'sdf ePsf $) eGbf
j9L ;+Vofsf OlGhlgol/‌+u sn]‌hx?jf6 dfq j;]‌{gL ^ xhf/‌:gfts OlGhlgo/‌:jb]‌zd}‌pTkfbg eO/‌x]‌sf]‌5 . clxn]‌
@@ xhf/‌OlGhlgo/‌;lxt #% xhf/‌lj1fg /‌k|ljlwsf pRr:t/‌Lo hgzlQm oxf ePsf]‌tYof+s 5 . t/‌, :jfy{j; bIf,
pRr:t/‌Lo hgzlQmsf]‌oxf sdL 5 eGg]‌/‌6 Psflt/‌nufOb}‌5 eg]‌, csf]‌{tkm{ b'ef{Uoj; :jb]‌zdf ltgnfO{ pko'Qm
sfd /‌jftfj/‌0f glbP/‌ljb]‌lzg' kg]‌{ jfWofTds kl/‌l:ylt yf]‌kl/‌Psf]‌5 jf yf]‌kl/‌b}‌5 .
ef}‌lts k"jf{wf/‌, ;dofg's"n lzIff /‌k|ljlwsf]‌b|"t ljsf; g}‌/‌fli6«|o ;d'Ggltsf nflu hf]‌8lbg' kg]‌{ k|d"v If]‌q
x'g . >f]‌tsf]‌;d:of b]‌vfP/‌oL If]‌qnfO{ ;bf cgb]‌vf ul/‌b}‌cfPsf]‌5 . cfw'lgs k|ljlwsf]‌d2tn]‌lxhf]‌sf c;+ej
Jofjwfgx? cfh ;'lNem;s]‌sf 5g . t/‌, o; d'n'ssf lhDd]‌jf/‌x?df cem}‌k|ljlwzlQm g}‌;d[l4sf]‌ckf/‌Dkl/‌s
c4Llto ;+efjgfsf]‌s'GhL xf]‌eGg]‌1fg /‌r]‌tgf v'n]‌sf]‌]‌kfOb}‌g . logn]‌lj1fg /‌k|ljlwk|lt /‌f]‌if /‌logLk|lt a}‌1flgs,
k|fljlw1x?n]‌]‌3[0ffsf]‌u|GyL kfn]‌sf b'vMb cj:yf ljBdfg b]‌lvG5g .
ljZjk|l;4 ;dfhzf:qL DofGs/‌ cf]‌N;gn]‌ p:t}‌p:t}‌k|fs[lts /‌ef}‌uf]‌lns kl/‌l:ylt ljBdfg ePsf d'n'sx? dWo]‌
cd]‌l/‌sf-wgL_ /‌ o;sf]‌ l5d]‌sL d]‌lS;sf-ul/‌a_, blIf0f sf]‌l/‌of-wgL_ /‌ o;sf]‌ l5d]‌sL pQ/‌ sf]‌l/‌of-ul/‌a_, klZrd
hd{gL -wgL_/‌o;sf]‌l5d]‌sL tTsflng k"jL{ hd{gL-ul/‌a_aLr ;d[l4sf]‌:t/‌t'ngf u/‌L Osf]‌gf]‌lds k;{k]‌lS6e hg{n
-!((^_df cfkmgf]‌cg';+wfgfTds ;f]‌w k|sflzt ub}‌{ eg]‌sf 5g, æhldg, >lds, k+"lh /‌k|ljlwh:tf pTkfbgsf
k/‌Dk/‌fut >f]‌t;fwg pknJwtfsf]‌leGgtfn]‌s'g}‌d'n's wgL jf ul/‌a x'g]‌ub}‌{g . o; ljkl/‌t, oyfy{df ljBdfg
/‌fhgLlts gLlt /‌;+:yfut ;+:s[lt, k|s[of Pj+ Joj:yfx?n]‌km/‌s kf5{ .Æ OlGhlgol/‌+u PS;n]‌G;M sNr/‌n P08
cu{gfOh]‌zgn kmofS6/‌ k':tsdf 8f]‌gfN8 lqml:6oG;gn]‌7f]‌s'jf u/‌]‌sf 5g, æTof]‌d'n's h;n]‌, cfkmgf OlGhlgo/‌/‌
k|fljlw1x?nfO{ 7Ls 9+un]‌k|lzlIft kf5{, clg dgf]‌j}‌1flgs Pj+ ef}‌lts cfo kfpg]‌;'lglZrttf u/‌]‌/‌ltgnfO{ k'/‌:s[t
u5{, To;n]‌dfq pRr u'0f:t/‌sf pRr k|ljlwo'Qm pTkflbt a:t' /‌;]‌jfx? cGt/‌f{li6«o ?kdf jGb–Jofkf/‌n]‌dfq l6Sg
jf afRg ;+ej x'g]‌k|lt:kwf{Tds clxn]‌sf]‌ljZj cy{tGqdf emd]‌nf a]‌xf]‌g'{' kb{}‌g .Æ
c/‌asf]‌ d?e"lddf h:tf]‌ k]‌6«f]‌lnod kbfy{sf]‌ ckf/‌ vfgLsf]‌ cs:dft lr67f s;f]‌ gknf{ eg]‌/‌ lbjf:jKg b]‌Vg]‌ xf]‌ eg]‌
cs}‌{ s'/‌f, gq, j}‌1flgs, OlGhlgo/‌/‌k|fljlw1x?n]‌s'g}‌e"ldsf kfpg g;Sg]‌]‌jf c;+Gt'i6 eO/‌xg]‌, ljBdfg g]‌kfnL
/‌fhgLlts, k|zf;lgs,;fdflhs jftfj/‌0f Pj+ ;+:s[lt Pj+ ;+:sf/‌ePsf]‌d'n'sn]‌;d[l4sf]‌cfzug'{ Aoy{ 5 . cf]‌N;g
/‌lqml:6oG;gsf lg:sif{n]‌oxL eg]‌sf]‌xf]‌ . /‌fhgLlts ;+:sf/‌nfO{ lj1fg /‌k|ljlwsf]‌ljsf; cg's"n kfg]‌{ ljifotkm{
;'b"/‌lIflthdf klg cem}‌s'g}‌lrGtg ;'? x'g ;s]‌sf]‌gkfOg' /‌, ;Dk"0f{ Wofg hlt cGo k|ljlwOt/‌yfªg]‌s'/‌ftkm{ dfq
df]‌l8g' a}‌1flgs k|lt:kwL{ cGt/‌fi6«| hutdf d'n'ssf]‌cl:tTj vt/‌fdf kml;;s]‌sf]‌uDeL/‌nIf0f xf]‌ . wlg jf ul/‌a
d'n's s]‌aGg]‌Tof]‌s'/‌f g]‌tfx?sf]‌r]‌tgfdf g}‌e/‌kbf]‌{ /‌x]‌5 . hxfF tL la1fg /‌k|ljlwk|]‌dL 5g Toxf ;d[l2 x'G5 . hxfF
5}‌g Toxf bl/‌b|L x'G5 . bhimupadhyaya@gmail.com

8
Er. Ram Krishna Sapkota
MoFALD/DoLIDAR
'Enhancement of Quality of
Local Infrastructures'
Definition of quality
The following are some of the definitions in the broader terms on quality which however focus on
meeting customers' requirements/expectations:
1) Qualityisthedegreetowhichaproductorservicemeetsorexceedsacustomer'srequirements
and expectations.
2) Quality is the degree of goodness (Oxford Dictionary). Quality is the fitness for purpose (J.
M. Juran)
3) Quality is the conformance to requirements/specifications consistently, in all products. (P.
Crosby). This is the Japanese concept.
4) Quality is the consistent conformation to expectation.
5) Quality is the doing things right the first time.
6) Quality is the totality of characteristics of any entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated
and implied needs.
ABSTRACT
Quality is something that meets customer's requirement and expectations. Anyone can ask a question on quality.
In fact, the definition of quality is very broad. We often hear/say: quality (and yes quantity) of drinking water in
Kathmandu is very poor, quality of our education is degrading, quality of health services in our country is poor,
quality of government services is below standards, quality of infrastructures is poor, quality of technical staff is
poor, quality of life is very low and so on and so forth.
Additionally, there are frequent news in the national newspapers related to the quality of public works all over the
country. Quality assurance of public works in Nepal is therefore very important due to the high cost of quality
related issues like complaints, lawsuits (CIAA, court case), finger pointing, time and cost overruns, claims and
other cost of quality issues on a routine basis. In this context, 'quality of public works' means different things to
different people because of their different perceptions on it. This article therefore, in general, tries to elaborate
on quality related issues in the context of public works in Nepal. Moreover, it outlines the causes of having poor
quality public works, and remedial measures to be taken by the government institutions towards improving the
performance on quality followed by conclusions and recommendations.
Key words: quality, quality assurance, quality control, public works, local infrastructure

9
PublicWorks
Public works are a broad category of projects, financed and constructed by the government, for
employment, health, education and safety and recreational uses in the greater community. In other
words, they are intended to improve the well being or the living standards of the general public.
They include utilities, roads and bridges, water supply and sanitation, schools and hospitals,
irrigation and river training, municipal buildings and other social infrastructures, and usually
long-term physical assets and facilities. Public works also refers to physical assets needed to deliver
public services. Public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by the
government for the public.
Investing in public works projects in order to stimulate the general economy has been a popular
policy measure since the economic crisis of the 1930's. Almost all the governments undertake
public works projects in order to create jobs and stimulate the economy in their countries.
Reflecting increased concern with sustainability, ecology and quality of life, efforts to move
towards sustainable infrastructure undoubtedly requires quality of public works.
It is the common perception of the people that the quality of public works in general has been ever
deteriorating. In order to improve the performance of the government, it is a high time to assess the
root causes behind this reality and adopt relevant policy measures to solve the problem.
Quality of PublicWorks Projects
1) Major portion of the government budget goes on public works. Its quality significantly
matters for 'value for money'.
2) Quality of Public Works in a broader context is a prerequisite for access to regional and
global economy and a key determinant of competitive advantage.
3) Without improving the quality of public works substantially, infrastructure itself cannot
become an essential driver of competitiveness. Quality public works is critical for efficient
functioning of the economy (e.g. high transport cost, due to poor infrastructures, of our
export to international markets).
4) Infrastructure reduces the effect of distance between suppliers and consumers in and
outside Nepal, with the result of
truly integrating the national and
international economy.
5) Public works with standard quality
reduces income inequalities and
poverty in a variety of ways by
increasing community’s ability to
connect to core economic activities
and social services.
It is often said that the lack of infrastructure
in Nepal represents one of the most
significant limitations to economic growth
and achievement of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). Infrastructure
Photo 1: Employment Generation by Road Works
(RRRSDP- Chitwan)

10
investments and maintenance has been very expensive, especially due to landlocked, rural and
sparsely populated settlements.
It is argued that capital investment in public works can be used to reduce unemployment, Photo 1.
Governments makes an investment in public works because of the overall benefit to society when
there is a lack of private sector benefit or the risk is too great for a private company to accept on
its own.
PublicWorks and Infrastructures
Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society
or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function such as roads, water supply,
sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, and so forth, essential to enable, sustain, or enhance
societal living conditions." It is an important term for judging a country or region's development.
This is the reason why developed countries has been investing a significant amount of their GDP
in the infrastructure.
Obviously, the best design of infrastructure like a typical rural road is the effective implementation,
Photo 2. There is no meaning of having best infrastructure development plans and programs
until and unless they are implemented efficiently and effectively. In order to deliver sustainable
infrastructures, the public works contract needs to be implemented effectively. For this to
happen, timely supervision plays vital role. Our major weakness, as general public frequently
expressed their resentment, has been weak enforcement of rules and regulations and non effective
implementation. Effective implementation requires adequate supervision at different levels of
execution. Construction supervision, in general, has to adopt the following:
1) Follow construction quality (materials, workmanship and construction process)
requirements written in technical specifications.
2) Once the construction contract has been signed between the client/owner and the contractor,
all authorizations have been obtained, and all pre-construction submittals have been
received from the contractor, the project manager issues an "Order to begin construction".
3) Regularly schedule 'Management Meetings' and obtain contact information for the contractor
and all interested parties.
4) Obtain a detailed 'Work Schedule' from the Contractor and obtain proof of certification,
insurance and bonds. Examine 'Shop Drawings' submitted by the Contractor and receive
reports from the materials 'Quality Control Laboratory'.
5) When required, review change requests by the contractor, and issue construction directives
and variation orders. Supervise testing and commissioning and follow work progress and
authorize partial payments.
6) When substantially completed, inspect the work and prepare a list of deficiencies. If there
are deficiencies, instruct the contractor to rectify within the given time.
7) Verify that all operating and maintenance manuals, as well as warranties, are complete.
Prepare "as built" drawings.
8) Make a final inspection, issue a certificate of final completion, and authorize the final
payment. Monitor if there are any defects in Defect Liability Period (DLP).

11
QualityAssurance(QA)andQualityControl(QC)
The terms “quality assurance” and “quality
control” are often used interchangeably
to refer to ways of ensuring the quality of
works. The terms, however, have different
meanings. Principally, QA refers to the
actions, procedures, and methods employed
at the management and senior technical
levels to observe and ensure that prudent
quality procedures are in place and are
being carried out and desired result of a
quality infrastructure is achieved. Moreover,
QA is done to confirm that a QC program is
effective and it provides feedback on which
further development of the QC program
can be made. Quality control makes sure that things are going according to plan. The dictionary
defines quality control (QC) as
1) The inspection, analysis and action required to ensure quality of output to specifications;
2) The operational techniques and the activities used to fulfill and verify requirements of
quality;
QC includes the activities as constant supervision by experienced individuals, providing clear
decisions and directions, immediate review of completed activities for accuracy and completeness,
and accurate documentation of all decisions, assumptions, and recommendations.
Quality control procedures, if followed, should ensure that the work is done correctly the first time.
Quality control is an ongoing deliberate process, planned and carried out consultants. Quality
control is based on the belief that:
1) It should ensure that the work is done correctly the first time.
2) Quality is achieved by focusing on preventing problems or errors rather than reacting/
correcting to them.
3) Quality is achieved by qualified individuals performing all work functions.
Quality is achieved by providing proper training of personnel and ensuring that all personnel
remain current on the knowledge and skills needed for their position.
Findings of Fortune Magazine’s Study Related to Performance of Employees: This is quite relevant
example to demonstrate how quality is achieved. USA Service winners
1) Selectively recruit and keep good people
2) Thoroughly train employees in quality service
3) Motivate and reward for quality performance
4) Aggressively monitor quality performance
If we can adopt/learn from these four means of ensuring quality in our construction business, much
Photo 2: Improving Road Surface with Black Top
(RRRSDP- Bhaktapur)

12
of the finger pointing and law cases can be prevented and quality infrastructures be delivered.
Japan’s Approach to Quality
The following are some of the primary strategies, used by Japanese to achieve superior quality,
which can be replicated in our context:
1) Production department’s responsibility for quality.
2) Process quality control - the workers are the quality inspectors.
3) Line stops - each worker has the authority to stop the production line to correct quality
problems.
4) 100% check – check every completed product.
5) No - crisis atmosphere.
6) Housekeeping – a neat and clean work environment.
7) Easy - to - see quality and just- in- time inventory control .
Quality Procedures
Systematic methods to assure construction quality have little value, especially in our context
where law and order is weakening for a decade or so, if they are not properly managed by a quality
system. However, quality of public works can be achieved by putting strong emphasis on the
following five measures:
1) Document Control: To ensure employees have the correct procedures and the procedures
are properly maintained.
2) Audits: To verify quality procedures are being followed right from the planning to
implementation and then to operation and maintenance of the facility through technical,
social, financial, and performance audits.
3) Non-conformance Tracking: To monitor and track quality issues to ensure that construction
defects are rectified in time.
4) CAPA (corrective action and preventative action): To correct defective processes (i.e. quality
procedures) when detected via audits and non-conformance tracking to prevent defects
from re- occurring.
5) Management Review: Reviewing quality and taking the appropriate action to improve the
system.
The Pervasive Role of Quality
Quality has a broader role in everyday life and in every business in general and vital role in the
construction business in particular. The following flow diagram illustrates its benefits.
Why is quality of infrastructures deteriorating?
It is often said that the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries like Nepal represents
one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive,

13
especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries like Nepal.
However, there can be numerous reasons behind not having quality of local infrastructures in
Nepal. Some of the most important reasons/root causes include the following:
1) Inadequate technical capacity of the contractors/clients resulting not only deficient
planning and design but also inadequate supervision at the field level.
2) Generally, highly qualified contractors are selected for execution in paper but works is
carried out by contractors who do not have the capacity to carryout and complete the
entire job in time.
3) Poor enforcement of procurement laws by contracting parties.
4) Frequent transfer of key persons of the project at the implementation/central level.
5) Grossly inadequate monitoring from the supervisory level.
6) Very low bidding by the contractors thereby very hard to deliver quality of works.
7) Tendency of contractors to avoid the tests to confirm the compliance.
8) Delayed budget and program. Inadequate budget to complete the job in time. Looking at
very short term benefits.
9) Intention to earn easily without effort. Practice of 'take it as granted.'
10) Coercion and intimidation during bidding and contract administration.
11) Protection from non professionals for non performing contractors.
12) Work in the eleventh hour, when time is run out contractors are more pressed to complete
the job.
13) Nonexistent of quality culture in the construction business. Easy access to decision
making/influencing authority due to weak chain of command.

14
14) Grossly inadequate professional integrity.
15) Poor workmanship resulting forgotten value add aspect.
Some practical measures to enhance quality of local infrastructures:
1) Assess technical capacity of the contractors/clients and then strengthen this through
intensive training/mentoring.
2) Stop subletting of contracts. This has been a major problem in most of the contracts in
Nepal.
3) Timely decision at site is a must. For this to happen, there must be full authority for the
Project Manager to make necessary decisions. Project manager should have full authority
to administer the contract as per international practice.
4) There should be provision of site office and necessary logistics to carry out supervision at
the field level in large contracts
5) Strong enforcement of procurement laws. This is one of the prerequisites for creating
conducive environment in one hand and to ensure value for money on the other.
6) Establish/promote strong technical chain of command. This is very important in the
technical field. Ignorant or non responsive chain of command not only creates loss of
'value for money' but also anarchism.
7) Fair competition among bidders is prerequisite. There should be some clear provisions to
disqualify very low bidders. Let us learn from the neighboring countries, how they have
been addressing the problem.
8) Key persons of the project should be retained during the entire project period to keep up
the institutional memory and make them accountable for the results.
9) Extensive monitoring is required from the supervisory level because there is one saying "
you get what you inspect not what you expect".
10) Basic tests should be made mandatory before any payment (of course to confirm the
compliance with technical specifications). There should be Materials testing laboratories
established in each district and one central laboratory to monitor them and develop in
house capacity.
11) Provide physical security against coercion and intimidation during bidding and contract
administration.
12) Good performing and professional contractors who deliver quality infrastructures in time
are required to be honored/recognized.
13) We have to discourage the general mindset of 'take it as granted'
14) Every position has certain special role to perform. That role should not be undermined.
15) We have to focus on preventing problems or errors as far as practicable rather than reacting/
correcting to them. Because, reactive or corrective measures have always been costly than
the preventive ones.
16) There should be qualified and experienced individuals in a project performing all work
functions.

15
Conclusion and Recommendations
Ensuring quality of local infrastructures has not been always easy basically in a country like ours
in transition where maintaining law and order and chain of command within the organizational
context is weak. However, we can overcome the obstacles by adopting the following:
1) It is often said that 'you get what you inspect not what you expect'. This is more effective
in construction business. It demands robust monitoring and evaluation mechanism.
2) Managing construction time is very important. Delivery of local infrastructures in time
means realizing the benefits by the beneficiaries in time.
3) Every members of the construction team is required to do the job right the first time.
4) Mobilize entire team that consists of clients, consultants and contractor to strive for
excellence.
5) Contractors need to strive towards continuous improvement in the delivery of quality
public work. It is high time to change our culture to learn how to work systematically.
6) It is very important to gain sustained commitment from the top management to combat
undue pressure (if any) otherwise it directly or indirectly inhibits achieving quality of
local infrastructures.
7) Contractors and users committees have to overcome the “let’s just get it done” mentality.
8) There is a need to overcome “60’s” mentality, where “it’s only wrong if we get caught”.
References
1) Progress Monitoring Notes
2) “Performance Management” Training Handouts, Micheal Lowe, 2011, Kathmandu
3) Class Handouts (M.Sc. Env. Engineering, IOE, TU), Prof. Dr. Khemnath Dallakoti
4) Management, Eighth Edition, by Ricky W. Griffin
5) Management: Principles and Functions by John M. Ivancevich et al.
6) QMS Handouts By Raja Ram Pote Shrestha (ISO - EMS Consultant)
7) ISO 9000 Series
8) Quality related materials from the websites -Wikipedia.
We Congratulate Society of Engineers for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN)
for the publication of 4th
volume of journal "Rural Infrastructure"
on the auspicious occasion of 16th
Anniversary of DoLIDAR
and extend our best wishes for it's success in
contributing towards rural development of Nepal.
Shyam Kumar Tamang
Proprietor
Trishuli Construction Company P. Ltd.
Balaju, Kathmandu

16
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18
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Jofkf/‌sf]‌cfsf/‌, ljZj Jofkf/‌df ePsf]‌l;o/‌x?af6 klg b]‌zsf]‌cy{tGqsf]‌zlQm k|ltlalDat x'g]‌u5{ . o;af6
slt k"FhL lgdf{0f x'G5 /‌hDdf x'G5 eGg]‌cfsng ug{ ;lsG5 .
!#= cfly{s ;"rsx?sf]‌lalzi7 dxTj x'g]‌u5{, t/‌klg ltlgx?n]‌;dfhsf]‌Pp6f dfq tl:j/‌lbG5g . h:tf]‌ls, k|lt
JolQm cfon]‌hgtfsf]‌xftdf ePsf]‌k"FhLsf]‌;+s]‌t ub{5, t/‌k|lt JolQm cfo eg]‌sf]‌wgL /‌ul/‌a aLrsf]‌cf}‌;t
b/‌ePsf]‌n]‌o;n]‌;a}‌hgtfsf]‌xftdf Tolt /‌sd 5 eGg]‌b]‌vfpb}‌g . ;+Vof /‌tYofs+x? b]‌Vbf lgs}‌k|efjsf/‌L
x'G5g, t/‌;fwf/‌0f hgtfsf y'k|}‌lk8fx? tL tYofs+x? leq n'Sg]‌u/‌]‌sf k|df0fx? k|;:t}‌e]‌l6g]‌u/‌]‌sf 5g .
;du|tfdf b]‌lvg]‌ tl:j/‌sf]‌ 5'66}‌ ;Gbe{df dxTj x'g]‌ u5{, t/‌ b]‌zsf]‌ ;d[l4sf]‌ s'/‌f ubf{ x/‌]‌s gful/‌ssf]‌ Wofg
lbg' h?/‌L 5 . gfu/‌Lssf]‌hLjg s;/‌L rn]‌sf]‌5 eGg]‌x]‌Ssf x'g' k5{ . h:tf]‌ls, ;a{;fwf/‌0f hgtfsf]‌:jefljs
hLjg rn]‌sf]‌5 5}‌g, p;n]‌cfkmgf 5f]‌/‌f5f]‌/‌Lx?sf]‌nfngkfng /‌lzIff lbIff pko'Qm 9+un]‌-;e|fGt9+un]‌xf]‌O{g_
ug{ ;s]‌sf]‌5 5}‌g, /‌f]‌uJoflw gePsf]‌lb3{ hLjg p;sf]‌5 5}‌g, p;sf]‌Go'gtd ;'lawf ePsf]‌hLjg wfGgsf
nflu cfjZos /‌f]‌huf/‌L 5 5}‌g, O{Toflb . ;+ejtM of]‌g}‌;d[4 g]‌kfnsf]‌kl/‌sNkgf xf]‌ .
!$= o;}‌u/‌L w]‌/‌}‌ ;"rsx?nfO{ hgtfsf]‌ jf:tljs cj:yfsf]‌ k|ltljDasf]‌?kdf x]‌l/‌G5, h:tf]‌sL, hgtfsf]‌ cfxf/‌ /‌
kf]‌if0f tTjsf]‌cj:yf, cf}‌;t cfo', afn d[To'b/‌, vfg]‌kfgL tyf ;/‌;kmfO{sf]‌Joj:yf, a;f]‌jf;sf]‌Joj:yf,
/‌f]‌u Joflwsf]‌cj:yf, ckfu+tf, cg'Tkfbgsf If]‌qx?, :jf:y pkrf/‌dflysf]‌kx'Fr, ;fIff/‌tf, :s"n ;'lawf,
pRrlzIffsf]‌cj:yf, O{Toflb . oL ;a}‌;"rsx? ;sf/‌fTds ePtf klg plTkl8t, ul/‌a tyf lae]‌bdf /‌x]‌sf
hgtfx?sf cfFz' tyf z':s]‌/‌fx?nfO{ ;Daf]‌wg gubf{ ;Dd g]‌kfn /‌fi6«sf]‌?kdf pleg ;Sb}‌g . ;w}‌h;f]‌ul/‌aL
lgjf/‌0f, lg/‌If/‌tf pGd'ng, /‌f]‌u d'lQm, c;dfg cj;/‌sf]‌ cGTo, O{Toflb cleofgx? ;/‌sf/‌af6 e}‌/‌x]‌sf]‌ xf]‌, t/‌
klg b]‌z ljsf;sf]‌ nIo k|fKt x'g ;ls/‌x]‌sf]‌ 5}‌g . o;sf]‌ ljkl/‌t ul/‌aL /‌ a]‌/‌f]‌huf/‌L al9/‌x]‌sf]‌ cj:yf 5 . ;a}‌
g]‌kfnLnfO{ cfly{s?kdf dfly gp7fP ;Dd o:tf cleofgsf]‌s'g}‌cy{ /‌xb}‌g . ;a}‌g]‌kfnLsf]‌;'/‌lIft /‌;'vdo
jt{dfg x'g'k5{ /‌eljio k|lt cfzfjfbL x'g]‌cj:yf x'g'k5{ . ;+ejt ;a}‌n]‌vf]‌h]‌sf]‌g]‌kfn o:t}‌xf]‌ .
!%= zx/‌L ljsf; /‌u|fdL0f ljsf;n]‌of]‌tYonfO{ ;Daf]‌wg ug'{ k5{ .

19
!= k[i7e"ld
s'g}‌klg b]‌zsf]‌lbuf]‌ljsf; /‌;dl[4sf nflu vfB ;'/‌Iff, pmhf{ ;'/‌Iff /‌hn;|f]‌t ;'/‌Iff dxTjk"0f{ c+ux? x'g . oL
tLg If]‌qsf]‌;jntf /‌b'j{ntfn]‌cGo If]‌qx? h:t}‌lzIff, :jf:Yo, pBf]‌u, ef}‌lts k"jf{wf/‌cflbsf]‌ljsf;sf]‌ult tyf
lbzfnfO{ lgwf{/‌0f ub{5 . k|ltJolQm cfo, dfgj ljsf; ;'rsf+s nufotsf ;d[l4sf ;'rsf+sx?df g]‌kfnsf]‌:yfg
ljZjsf]‌ tNnf]‌ !%–@) k|ltzt jl/‌kl/‌ /‌x]‌sf]‌ 5 . csf]‌{lt/‌ ljZjsf]‌ bf]‌;|f]‌ /‌ kfFrf}‌+ 7"nf]‌ cy{tGq ePsf]‌ rLg /‌ ef/‌tsf]‌
aLrdf xfdL /‌x]‌sf 5f}‌+ . o;y{ d'n'ssf]‌ljsf; /‌cl:tTjnfO{ hf]‌ufO{ /‌fVg ;d]‌t Pp6f lehgsf ;fy oL If]‌qx?sf]‌
ljsf;df xfdLn]‌Wofg lbg}‌kb{5 . o;/‌L dfq d''n'ssf]‌cfly{s ;fdflhs ?kfGt/‌0f ;Dej x'G5, g]‌kfnL hgtfsf]‌
lhjg:t/‌nfO{ dfly psf:g ;lsG5 . vfBfGg tyf hn;|f]‌tsf ljifox? klg plQs}‌dxTjsf x'Fbfx'b}‌klg o; n]‌v eg]‌
phf{ cem ljz]‌if u/‌]‌/‌ljB'tLo phf{ /‌;Da[l4;+u s]‌Gb|Lt /‌x]‌sf]‌5 .
@= cfo /‌phf{
ljZjdf k|ltjif{ k|ltJolQm phf{ vkt cf}‌;tdf ^* luuf h'n -!,^@* kilogram of oil equivalent, kgoe_ hlt /‌x]‌sf]‌
5 eg]‌Pl;ofsf]‌xsdf of]‌c+s #& luuf h'n -**) kgoe_ hlt 5 . g]‌kfnsf]‌k|ltjif{ k|ltJolQm phf{ vkt s]‌jn
!% luufh'n -#%) kgoe_ a/‌fa/‌dfq 5 . lrq ! df ljZjsf !!@ j6f b]‌zx?sf]‌k|ltJolQm cfo /‌pknAw phf{
vktsf]‌8f6fnfO{ b]‌vfOPsf]‌5 . o; lrqn]‌phf{ vkt /‌pQm b]‌zsf]‌k|ltJolQm cfosf]‌aLrdf ;dfg'kftLo k|ToIf
;DaGw x'Fbf]‌/‌x]‌5 eGg]‌s'/‌f b]‌vfpFb5 . cyf{t phf{ vkt a9L x'g]‌b]‌zsf]‌cfly{s ;+al[4 klg a9L /‌cfly{s ;+al[4 sd
ePsf b]‌zx?df phf{sf]‌pknAwtf /‌vkt klg sd x'g]‌s'/‌f o;af6 :ki6 b]‌lvG5 .
lrq !M k|ltJolQm cfo / phf{ vktsf] ;DaGw
;|f]tM International Energy Agency (IEA), 2005
O{= 8f= nIdL b]jsf]6f
sfo{sf/L cWoIf
a'9Lu08sL hnljB't cfof]hgf ljsf; ;ldlt
g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df ;+a[l4 / phf{

20
To;}‌ u/‌L lrq @ df ljZjsf !!@ j6f b]‌zx?sf]‌k|ltJolQm cfo /‌ljB'tLo phf{ vktsf]‌;DaGwnfO{ b]‌vfOPsf]‌5 .
o; lrqaf6 ljB'tLo phf{ vkt /‌cfly{s ;+al[4sf]‌aLrdf klg k|ToIf ;DaGw /‌x]‌sf]‌b]‌lvG5 . ljB'tLo phf{ eg]‌sf]‌
phf{sf]‌pGgt :j?k xf]‌ . g]‌kfndf o;sf]‌cf}‌;t pkof]‌u s/‌La !)) lsnf]‌jf6 cfj/‌-ogL6_ dfq 5 . hals ljsl;t
b]‌zx?df of]‌vkt !) ;f}‌+ xhf/‌o"gL6;Dd eO/‌x]‌sf]‌tYo oxL lrq @ df b]‌lvG5 .
lrq @M k|ltJolQm cfo / ljB'tLo phf{ vktsf] ;DaGw
;|f]tM International Energy Agency (IEA), 2005
lrq # df g]‌kfndf jt{dfg cj:yfdf vkt eO/‌x]‌sf phf{sf ;|f]‌tx? b]‌vfOPsf]‌5 . g]‌kfndf bfp/‌f g}‌phf{sf]‌d'Vo
;|f]‌t /‌x]‌sf]‌tYo o; lrqdf :ki6;Fu b]‌Vg ;lsG5 . bfp/‌fn]‌d'n'ssf]‌s"n phf{sf]‌&*Ü hlt dfu k"lt{ u/‌]‌sf]‌kfO{G5 .
s[lifhGo /‌kz'hGo kbfy{af6 (Ü hlt /‌cfofltt k|]‌6«f]‌lnod kbfy{af6 *Ü hlt phf{sf]‌dfu k"lt{ eO/‌x]‌sf]‌cj:yf
clxn]‌/‌x]‌sf]‌5 . jt{dfg cj:yfdf ljB'tLo phf{sf]‌of]‌ubfg eg]‌@Ü eGbf klg sd /‌x]‌sf]‌5 . ;fy}‌gjLs/‌0fLo
phf{sf]‌ljsf; gu0o dfqfdf dfq ePsf]‌tYo lrq # n]‌b]‌vfpFb5 .
lrq #M g]‌kfndf k|of]‌u x'g]‌ljleGg k|sf/‌sf phf{
;|f]‌tM g]‌kfnsf]‌phf{ l/‌kf]‌6{ @))^, hn tyf zlQm cfof]‌u

21
lrq $ df If]‌qut k|of]‌hgdf eO/‌x]‌sf]‌phf{sf]‌vkt b]‌vfOPsf]‌5 . g]‌kfndf 3/‌fo;L k|of]‌hgdf nueu ()Ü phf{
vr{ eO/‌x]‌sf]‌cj:yf clxn]‌/‌x]‌sf]‌5 . cf}‌Bf]‌lus tyf s[lif h:tf pTkfbg d'ns tyf oftfot Pj+ Jokf/‌–Joj;fo
h:tf ;]‌jf d'ns If]‌qdf eg]‌gu0o dfqfdf dfq phf{ vkt eO/‌x]‌sf]‌tYo klg o; lrqaf6 b]‌lvG5 . o;af6 xfd|f]‌
cy{tGq pTkfbgd'vL geP/‌lgjf{xd'vL /‌x]‌sf]‌b]‌lvG5 .
lrq $M phf{sf]‌If]‌qut k|of]‌u
;|f]‌tM g]‌kfnsf]‌phf{ l/‌kf]‌6{ @))^, hn tyf zlQm cfof]‌u

dflysf]‌tYofÍx?nfO{ ;/‌;tL{ x]‌bf{ /‌cfly{s ;+j[l4;+u phf{nfO{ hf]‌8bf tnsf s'/‌fx?df xfd|f]‌Wofg k'Ug h?/‌L
b]‌lvG5 .
c_ cfly{s ;+j[l4sf nIox?sf]‌lgwf{/‌0f
cf_ phf{sf ;DaGwdf
-s_ k|ltJolQm phf{ vkt a9fpg' kg]‌{
-v_ phf{sf]‌ pGgt ;|f]‌tx?sf]‌ ljsf;df hf]‌8 lbg'kg]‌{
-u_ phf{sf]‌k|of]‌u pTkfbgzLn sfo{df nufpg' kg]‌{
-3_ lbuf]‌cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu lbuf]‌?kdf phf{sf]‌pknAwtfsf]‌Uof/‌]‌G6L x'g'kg]‌{
#= d'n'ssf]‌nflu cfjZos phf{
s'g}‌klg d'n'snfO{ cfjZos kg]‌{ phf{ p;sf]‌cfly{s ljsf; /‌hLjg:t/‌nfO{ s'g :t/‌df k'¥ofpg]‌eGg]‌s'/‌f;+u
;DalGwt x'G5 . o;y{ g]‌kfnsf]‌;Gbe{df klg ca cfjZos kg]‌{ phf{sf]‌s'/‌f ubf{ log}‌cfwf/‌df ljZn]‌if0f ug'{ pko'Qm
x'G5 . ;+a[4 g]‌kfn agfpg]‌kl/‌sNkgf g]‌kfnsf ;a}‌/‌fhgLlts kf6L{x?n]‌u/‌]‌klg Plss[t g]‌kfn sDo'lgi6 kf6L{
-dfcf]‌jfbL_ n]‌dfq 7f]‌; ?kdf cfˆgf uGtAox?sf]‌lgwf{/‌0f u/‌]‌sf]‌kfOG5 . h; cg';f/‌p;n]‌cfufdL !) jif{df
g]‌kfnL hgtfsf]‌hLjg:t/‌nfO{ dWod:t/‌df, @) jif{df pRr:t/‌df tyf $) jif{df clt pRr:t/‌df k'¥ofpg]‌nIo
/‌fv]‌sf]‌5 . of]‌eg]‌sf]‌cfufdL !) jif{df k|To]‌s g]‌kfnLsf]‌;/‌b/‌cfo k|ltjif{ #,))) 8n/‌sf]‌xf/‌fxf/‌Ldf tyf cfufdL
@) /‌$) jif{ leq of]‌cfonfO{ qmdzM !*,))) /‌$),))) 8n/‌;Dd k'¥ofpg]‌eGg]‌xf]‌ . o;nfO{ g}‌ cfwf/‌ dfg]‌/‌
cfpFbf jif{x?df g]‌kfndf slt phf{ pTkfbg /‌k|of]‌u ug'{kb{5 eGg]‌cfFs8f oxf k|:t't ul/‌Psf]‌5 .

22
lrq ! df b]‌vfOPsf]‌k|ltJolQm cfo /‌phf{ vktsf]‌;DaGwsf cfwf/‌df cfufdL !), @) /‌$) jif{df g]‌kfnLsf]‌
hLjg:t/‌nfO{ dfly pNn]‌v ul/‌P adf]‌lhd k'¥ofpgsf nflu cfjZos kg]‌{ k|ltAolQm /‌hDdf phf{ tflnsf ! df
lbOPsf]‌5 . o;af6 cfufdL !), @) /‌$) jif{df qmdzM $!, !#* /‌@&^ million ton of oil equivalent (mtoe)
a/‌fa/‌sf]‌phf{ cfjZos kg]‌{ blvG5 . To;}‌u/‌L o;af6 cfufdL !), @) /‌$) jif{df qmdzM !), @% /‌$% xhf/‌
d]‌ufjf6 ljB'tLo phf{ d'n'sdf rflxg]‌blvG5 -tflnsf @_.
tflnsf !M eljiosf nflu cfjZos phf{sf]‌l:ylt
jif{
k|ltJolQm cfo
-8n/‌_
hg;+Vof
-xhf/‌df_
k|ltJolQm cfjZos phf{
(kgoe)
hDdf cfjZos phf{
(mtoe)
cfufdL 10 3,000 35,868 1,143 41
20 18,000 41,742 3,309 138
40 jif{ 40,000 51,891 5,314 276
tflnsf @M eljiosf nflu cfjZos ljB'tLo phf{
jif{
k|ltJolQm cfo k|ltJolQm cfjZos ljB'tLo phf{ cfjZos ljB'tu[xsf]‌Ifdtf
-8n/‌_ (KWh) (MW)
cfufdL 10 3,000 1500 10,000
20 18,000 5,500 25,000
40 jif{ 40,000 10,000 45,000
$= ljB'tLo phf{ pTkfbg /‌k|of]‌u
phf{x? dWo]‌;aeGbf pGgt ?ksf]‌phf{ ljB'tLo phf{ xf]‌ . cfkmg}‌d'n'sdf pknAw k|r'/‌hn;|f]‌taf6 pTkfbg
ug{ ;lsg]‌phf{ hnljB't ePsfn]‌cfufdL jif{x?df d'ntM hnljB'tsf]‌ljsf;df ljz]‌if hf]‌8 lbg' kg]‌{ blvG5 .
u}‌/‌hnfzoo'Qm cfof]‌hgfx?af6 pTkfbg x'g]‌ljh'nLsf]‌dfqf lxpFbsf]‌;'Vvfofddf hl8t IfdtfeGbf lgs}‌sd
cyf{t hl8t Ifdtfsf]‌Ps ltxfO b]‌lv cfwfcflw hltdfq x'g hfG5 . o;y{ hnfzoo'Qm (Storage Type) tyf u}‌/‌
hnfzoo'Qm (Run of the River) cfof]‌hgfx?sf]‌;Gt'lnt ljsf; u/‌]‌/‌dfq hnljB't pTkfbg clwstd pkof]‌uL
(Optimized) x'g;S5 . o;/‌L dfq jiff{ofd /‌lxpFbsf]‌;'Vvfofddf b]‌lvg]‌ljB't cfk"lt{sf]‌c;Gt'ngnfO{ ;Daf]‌wg
ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/‌L x]‌bf{ hnfzoo'Qm tyf u}‌/‌hnfzoo'Qm hnljB't cfof]‌hgfx?sf]‌cg'kft $)M^) ljsf; u/‌]‌df
/‌pbfx/‌0fsf nflu tn tflnsf # df lbOP adf]‌lhd ljleGg ljB'tu[xx? ;+rfng u/‌]‌df jif{el/‌g}‌Psgf;n]‌ljB't
cfk"lt{ ug{ ;lsg]‌b]‌lvG5 .
tflnsf #M ljB't u[x ;+rfng tflnsf
ofd hnfzoo'Qm
(S)
u}‌/‌ hnfzoo'Qm
(R)
s'n pknAw ljB't
jiff{ofd S/‌4: 10% R: 60% 70% of (S+R)
lxpFbofd S: 40% R/‌2*
: 30% 70% of (S+R)
Ifdtf 40% of (S+R) 60% of (S+R)
* lxpbofddf hnljB't pTkfbg cfwf pTkfbg x'G5 eg]‌/‌lnFbf
S = hnfzoo'Qm cfof]‌hgfsf]‌Ifdtf, R = u}‌/‌ hnfzoo'Qm cfof]‌hgfsf]‌ Ifdtf

23
;fy}‌ b|'tt/‌ lsl;dn]‌ eO/‌x]‌sf]‌ k|ljlwsf]‌ ljsf;nfO{ x]‌bf{ afof]‌UofF;, dfOqmf]‌xfO8«f]‌, ;f}‌o{phf{ tyf jfo'phf{sf]‌ ljsf;
;xh aGb}‌ hfg]‌ b]‌lvG5 . o;af/‌]‌df csf]‌{ 5'66}‌ ljZn]‌if0fsf]‌ h?/‌t b]‌lvG5 .
ljB'tLo phf{sf]‌pTkfbgzLn If]‌qdf ul/‌g]‌k|of]‌un]‌dfq d'n'ssf]‌cfly{s ;fdflhs ?kfGt/‌0f ;Dej x'G5 . ljZjsf
ljleGg d'nssf]‌tYof+snfO{ x]‌bf{ -pbfx/‌0fsf nflu s]‌xL b]‌zx?sf]‌tYof+s lbOPsf]‌5_ cfufdL jif{x?df tflnsf $ jf
lrq % df lbOP cg';f/‌sf]‌pkof]‌u ug'{kg]‌{ b]‌lvG5 .
tflnsf $M phf{sf]‌If]‌qut k|of]‌u -∞_
k|of]‌u yfONof08 sf]‌l/‌of hfkfg
g]‌kfn
xfn cfufdL 10 20 40 jif{
cf}‌Bf]‌lus 37 44 39 3.5 20 30 40
oftfoft 37 22 27 3.8 10 18 29
s[lif 4 3 3 0.8 10 7 3
Joj;flos 5 15 13 1.5 11 11 11
3/‌fo;L 16 11 15 90.3 47 31 14
cGo 1 5 3 0.2 2 3 3
s"n 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
;|f]‌tM International Energy Agency (IEA), 2005 tyf g]‌kfnsf]‌phf{ l/‌kf]‌6{ @))^, hn tyf zlQm cfof]‌u
lrq %M k|If]‌lkt phf{sf]‌If]‌qut k|of]‌u
%= pk;+ef/‌
g]‌kfndf k|of]‌u x'g]‌phf{x?df bfp/‌fsf]‌of]‌ubfg &*Ü /‌x]‌sf]‌5 . t/‌xfd|f]‌jgh+unsf]‌ Ifdtf eg]‌s]‌jn $*Ü dfq
phf{ k"lt{ ug{ ;Sg]‌/‌x]‌sf]‌5 -yfkf /‌yfkf, !((%_ . lbuf]‌?kdf xfdL jgh+unaf6 ^% nfv 6g bfp/‌f lng;S5f}‌+
t/‌jflif{s dfu !%) nfv 6g /‌x]‌sf]‌b]‌lvG5 -WECS, 2006; Shrestacharya, 2002_ . kmn:j?k jgh+unn]‌lbg ;Sg]‌

24
Ifdtf eGbf a9L dfqfdf bfp/‌f s6fgL x'g]‌ u/‌]‌sf]‌ sf/‌0fn]‌ jif]‌{gL g]‌kfnsf]‌ jgIf]‌q 3l6/‌x]‌sf]‌ 5 . o;sf]‌ kl/‌0ffd af9L,
klx/‌f]‌h:tf k|fs[lts k|sf]‌kx? jif}‌{ lkR5]‌a9L/‌x]‌sf 5g . cyf{t jftfj/‌0fdf x|f; cfO/‌x]‌sf]‌5 . bfp/‌f, s[lifhGo
cjz]‌if tyf uf]‌a/‌h:tf phf{sf]‌]‌k|of]‌u vfgf ksfpg]‌, 3/‌nfO{ Gofgf]‌kfg]‌{ h:tf 3/‌fo;L k|of]‌hgdf x'g]‌ub{5 . o:tf
sfdaf6 lg:sg]‌k|b'lift w'jfFn]‌dlxnf tyf afnaflnsfsf]‌:jf:Yodf ;d]‌t xflg k'¥ofO/‌x]‌sf]‌5 . ;fy}‌k]‌6«f]‌lnod
kbfy{sf]‌cfoftdf jif]‌{gL c/‌af+}‌?kofF ljb]‌lzPsf]‌dfq xf]‌O{g pRr ;/‌sf/‌L cg'bfgsf]‌gfpFdf c/‌af}‌+ ?kofF ;d]‌t u'dfpg'
k/‌]‌sf]‌ 5 . o;n]‌ d'n'ssf]‌ cy{tGqnfO{ g}‌ w/‌fzfoL agfO/‌x]‌sf]‌ 5 .
lbuf]‌?kdf phf{sf]‌pknAwtf xfl;n ug{ b]‌zleq g}‌pknAw ;|f]‌t;fwgaf6 pTkfbg ug{ ;lsg]‌phf{ ljsf;df ljz]‌if
?kn]‌hf]‌8 lbg' kb{5 . jftj/‌0fLo ;+/‌If0f tyf hg:jf:ynfO{ dWogh/‌/‌fVb}‌casf lbgx?df k/‌Dk/‌fut phf{sf]‌
k|of]‌unfO{ hlt ;lsG5 sd ub}‌{ nfg' h?/‌L 5 . cfofltt phf{sf]‌klg ;s]‌;Dd sd k|of]‌u ug'{ plrt x'G5 . o;y{
xfd|f]‌d'n'ssf]‌kl/‌k|]‌Iodf hnljB'tLo tyf gjLs/‌0fLo phf{sf]‌ljsf;df hf]‌8tf]‌8sf ;fy nfUg'sf]‌ljsNk b]‌lvb}‌g .
;Gbe{ ;fdfu|L
l g]‌kfnsf]‌phf{ l/‌kf]‌6{ @))^, hn tyf zlQm cfof]‌u
l yfkf, e]‌v a= /‌k|wfg, e/‌t a=, ;g !((%,hn;|f]‌t ljsf;M g]‌kfnL b[lisf]‌0f, sf]‌gfs{ k|sfzg, sf7df+8f}‌, g]‌kfn,
l International Energy Agency (IEA), 2005
l SEDO, 2009, The Sustainable Energy Development Office (SEDO), the Government of Western Australia.
l Shrestacharya, A. 2002, Energy Economics of Nepal, Udaya Books, Kathmandu.
l Taskforce, 2009, bz jifL{o hnljB't ljsf; of]‌hgf th'{df sfo{bn, 2065
l WRI (World Resources Institute), ;g @))@, http:/‌/‌earthtrends.wri.org/‌visited August 2009
phf{sf o"lg6x? /‌ltgx?sf]‌aLrsf]‌;DaGw
kgoe kg of oil equivalent
toe ton of oil equivalent 1 toe = 1000 kgoe = 41.868 *10^9 J = 11630 KWh
mtoe million toe 1 mtoe = 10^6 toe
KWh Kilowatt hour 1 KWh = 3.6 * 10^6 J
GWh Gigawatt hour 1 GWh= 10^6 KWh
J Joule
We Congratulate Society of Engineers for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN)
for the publication of 4th
volume of journal "Rural Infrastructure"
on the auspicious occasion of 16th
Anniversary of DoLIDAR
and extend our best wishes for it's success in
contributing towards rural development of Nepal.
Lekh Bahadur Basnet
Proprietor
Tani Nirman Sewa P. Ltd.
Battisputali, Kathmandu

25
Er. Hare Ram Shrestha
MIE (Civil, India), M. Sc. (Env Mgmt.), M. Phil. (Env. Sc.)
Executive Director: Sustainable Infrastructure Development Foundation (SIDeF)
President: Society of Consulting Architectural and Engineering Firms (SCAEF) Nepal
PastVice President : Nepal Engineers Association (NEA)
RURAL ROAD NETWORK IN NEPAL:
A MASSIVE CHALLANGE AHEADTO IMPROVE & MAINTAIN
1 INTRODUCTION
Transport facilities help to develop the access of rural-urban linkages. Rural transport reduces
isolation, stimulates marketing activities, improves public services and thus rural connectivity is
key component of rural development. Nepal's rugged terrain prevents people from moving with
ease. Nepal’s road network and quality are among the lowest in South Asia. More than one-third
of its people live in more than two hours walk from the nearest all-season road; In addition,
some 60% of road network and most rural roads are not operational during rainy season. Hence
improving fair weather roads to an all-weather standard and implementing a maintenance system
is essential for Nepal’s economic growth and social welfare.
Planning, implementation and operation and maintenance of district level transport infrastructure
are the responsibility of the District Development Committees (DDCs) with the assumption that
the DDCs can effectively mobilize the local resources and acquire people’s participation. Now
50944 km length of rural road networks have been constructed (DoLIDAR, 2012). These lengths
do not include urban roads in municipal area. Rural roads is expected to integrate the rural area in
main stream of country's overall economic activities reducing the isolation and hence providing
access to deliver all the basic government services - health, education and thereby improving the
livelihood of the rural people.
History of Development of Strategic Road in Nepal
The historical evidence shows that the Gorkhali rulers had devised a number of arrangements
for maintaining lines of transport and communications from Kathmandu to different districts. As
mentioned by Regmi (1987) these arrangements could be described under two main headings:
An east-west track through the hill region and postal service for the transportation of official
mail and supplies. However, Rana rulers (until 1950), according to Regmi (1987), refrained from
constructing large-scale transportation infrastructure because they were afraid that economic
development should provide a motive for the British to annex the Kingdom. Road construction
initiative took place after the fall of Rana Regime. The major emphasis on the construction of a
strategic road network during the period of 1950 – 1975 gradually changed and the country started
to focus on constructing roads of regional importance.
Nepal's first highway Tribhuwan Rajpath connecting Birgunj and Kathmandu was constructed by
Government of India, completed in 1956. The agreement among the Governments of India, United
States of America and Nepal in 1958 to establish the Regional Transportation Organization (RTO)
for building roads was an organised and planned way on a long term basis, was the first effort in the
history of Nepalese motorized road construction in Nepal (Zimmermann and Rajbhandari, 1995).

26
The RTO formulated a 20-year program to build north-south roads connecting Indian cities and
railheads along the border. After the collapse of RTO in 1962, Nepal continued its effort to invite
donors and build roads. Second highway Siddhartha Rajmarga connecting Sunauli and Pokhara
was constructed by Government of India. The earlier policy of emphasizing north-south roads
was replaced by the east-west roads like the East-West Highway (1026 km) and Prithivi Raj Marg
(Naubise - Pokhara, 176 km). With the internal resources of Nepal and contributions received from
the major donor countries and agencies like India, China, USSR, UK, USA, Switzerland, Japan,
World Bank (WB) and Asian Development Bank (ADB), Nepal developed the present strategic road
networks, which is now at the range of ten thousand kilometres. Strategic Roads Network (SRN)
are planned, implemented and maintained by Department of Roads (DOR).
Initiative and Development of Rural Roads
With the construction of national highways, second priority was given to construct the feeder
roads linking major market towns and district headquarters with the national highways. National
highways and feeder roads are strategic roads. After the construction of feeder roads network,
construction of district roads started in various part of the country since 1980ies. Government
initiative started the rural access programme with the formation of Local Development
Construction Committee in 1977. Later Programme was named as "Goreto Ghodeto Aayojana (Foot
Trail Mule Trail Project) in 1989. Local people initiated the construction of rural roads in the
beginning and accelerated further since early 1990ies by the local bodies like DDCs and VDCs.
Department of Roads, DDCs and MLD started funding the construction of rural roads. Programme
was named as Local Development Construction Project in 1994 till the formation of Department
of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) under Ministry of Local
Development.
Before formation of DoLIDAR, during eighties some district and regional integrated rural
development projects were started e.g. Rapti Integrated Rural Development Project (supported by
USAID), Koshi Hill Agricultural Rural Development Project (KHARDP, Supported by UK), Palpa
Development Project (PDP, supported by GTZ and SDC), Dhading Development Project (DDP,
supported by GTZ). Though these projects were focussed on agriculture, due to high demand of
local people, these projects had to undertake some rural roads projects. Rapti project constructed
Ghorahi - Pyuthan Road, PDP initiated three roads in Plapa - Aryabhanjyang - Rampur, Harthok,
- Chhahara and Banstari - Jhadewa roads. DDP initiated two roads in Dhading - Dhadingbesi -
Salyantar and Bhimdhunga - Lamidanda roads. These roads played a pioneer role in showing
the need of rural roads in other districts too. With growing demand of rural roads, formation of
new dedicated department was necessitated and DoLIDAR was formed under Ministry of Local
Development in 1997.
After the formation of DoLIDAR, construction of rural roads in district level got momentum
throughout the country. Road sector programme was named as Local Development Construction
and Agricultural Roads Project in 2000. Road sector programme was named as Agriculture and
Local Level Road Project in 2005. Later to streamline the rural road funding sector wide approach
is adopted and termed as Rural Transport Infrastructure Sector Wide Approach Programme from
2009. Thus rural road programme passed its course from three decades. Now, with the VDC
grant started since last few years rural road construction is increased suddenly and significantly.
Though road construction started haphazardly, even without conducting the survey works road
construction started hiring dozers, local people with their initiative started roads, especially in hill
districts.

27
2 RRN PRESENT SCENARIO
There are two distinct scenario of road status in Terai and hill districts. Terai districts have all
three categories of roads - blacktop, gravel and earthen roads. Whereas, most of the roads in hill
districts are earthen. For example total rural roads in Morang district is 1233 kms, in which 953.65
kms gravel road, 22.72 km is black top and 257.51 km is earthen roads. In terms of percentage -
gravel roads occupy 77.29% of road is gravel, 21% and blacktop road is 1.84%. Sindhupalchowk,
a hill district, has the highest road length among the hill district with 1778 km of total road length.
But, no blacktop road yet and only 15 km. of gravel roads exist in the district. Therefore, most of
the roads are fair weather. Thus the priority of road works and maintenance is different in Terai
and hill roads.
National Total: According to the DoLIDAR (2012) Rural Road Record, total rural road length is
50944 kms. Earthen road is 34766 kms, gravel road 14602 and blacktop road is 1576 km. Thus,
earthen road is 68%, gravel road 29% and blacktop road is 3 % only. This is sizeable road length of
rural road with 34.61 km road length per 100 square km of land area of Nepal. Actually this figure
will be more if the land area of plain and hill only is counted deducting the inhabitable land area
of snow clad mountains. This figure is quite high if all roads could be made all weather. Since
68% road length is earthen road, which is pliable during fair weather of 8 months only. Many
of these roads are not operational during fair weather too, due to incompleteness, especially the
rocky cliff and absence of river crossings. Therefore people are deprived of the year round access.
Implementation Need of RRN
There is huge funding gap between required budget and available budget for road woks. Actual
demand of completing the remaining works i.e widening, structural works (retaining walls), side
and cross drainage works is very high for almost all the roads. At the same time upgrading demand
and requirement of roads to gravel standard is also very high.
Many of the important district roads, which are now within the first five top priority roads in DTMP
were started to construct as early as 30 years ago. Begnas - Bhorletar Road, Kaski was initiated in
2036 B.S, 34 years ago. Many of the roads in hill district, public vehicles are operational during
fair weather only since last 10 to 15 years. People have strong urge to make these roads to gravel
standard. It is realised that due to absence of year round operation, many potential economic
activities are hindered. For example an entrepreneur in Bhorletar in Kaski district planned to put a
juice factory, but he was reluctant, because he fears his investment will not yield the benefit unless
there is uninterrupted all weather road round the year.
Cases of implementation of roads activities have different priorities in various districts,
Implementation priorities could be broadly grouped in three categories - Terai, districts, hill
districts and mountain districts.
Terai districts: Most of the terai districts are in need of;
ll Proper establishment of all sets of maintenance mechanism - routine, recurrent and
periodic maintenance for gravel standard road.
ll Completion of structural works, especially the side drain and cross drain works.
ll River and rivulets crossing structures e.g. culverts, smaller to long span bridges.
ll Upgrading of road surface to blacktop standard.

28
Hill districts: Many hill districts have initiated the roads construction and most of the roads are
in the state of under-construction. Construction of many top priority roads were started long
ago, since 20 to 30 year, are partially operational since last few years. Majority of other roads,
particularly initiated by VDCs in hill districts in recent years are dozer roads. These roads are of
poor quality, poorly aligned and many roads are not even surveyed.
To make the priority roads, operational at least during fair weather of 9 months, requirement of
such roads in hill districts are;
ll Road surface spot improvement works in problematic area.
ll Widening of road width wherever it is very narrow, which are incomplete particularly in
rocky area.
ll Structural works and retaining walls.
ll Construction of side and cross drains in required places.
ll River and rivulets crossing structures e.g. culverts and bridges
ll Establishment of maintenance mechanism.
To make top priority roads to all weather operational, proper gravel works throughout the road
length is required. Various surface pavement method is applied in Sindhupalchowk district - river
gravel, stone soling, cobble soling etc. But stone soling is widely practiced with good workmanship
with long experiences. Cost is similar to river gravel in lower hills, whereas in higher altitude and
ridge area stone soling is cheaper than river gravel.
Dozer roads, which are mostly initiated by VDCs in recent years, are more problematic. These
roads are to be treated as new construction. Interventions requirement of these roads are;
ll Assessment of alignment itself and corrections of alignment so that any investment made
now onwards are not wasted.
ll Retaining structures
ll Widening to the required road width.
ll Construction of side and cross drains in required places.
ll Spot improvement of road surface to operate during fair weather
If these roads are to be made all weather, depending on the potential and demand of traffic volume,
such roads are to be upgraded to gravel standard.
DDC is starting to employ length man for routine maintenance work. All weather roads as a reliable
access to various services, entrepreneurs are encouraged to establish the permanent nature of
economic and business activities. Investors are likely to invest their business, agricultural activities
and economic activities along the vicinity of all weather roads.
Earlier road work was based on adhoc basis and budget allocations of roads were influenced by
the political parties. Maintenance of gravel road is understood as spreading of gravel, no detail
mechanism of grading, watering, cambering and rolling is practiced in rural roads of terai.
New DTMP Guidelines was prepared for DoLIDAR with the support of RTI Sector Maintenance
Pilot. All the districts are investing in hundreds of roads with limited fund. Thus fund provided
to each road used to be insignificant in terms of requirement. No roads are in complete state.
District Road Core Network (DRCN) concept is introduced in new DTMP Guidelines. This rule has

29
become a good tool to bring to the politician to agree on identifying the priority roads to fund to
the meaningful scale.
3 PROBLEMS & CHALLANGES
Budget required and available has huge gap for RRN. Roads are incomplete due to inadequate
budget. Due to less funding, minor works are done in small section, which is easily washed out
during monsoon and get damaged by operation of vehicle, which actually is repeating every year,
has in turn made roads more expensive.
In steeper area, full road width is not obtained to gain more road length. This is causing the
difficulty for the vehicle. Political influence is still prevalent in allocating funds for roads.
Problem is still with RBN fund to follow their specific rules. DDCs are hesitant to use RBN fund
fulfilling the various conditions for the relatively smaller fund received from RBN.
District Assembly takes place mostly in Falgun, budget allocation is rearranged/reallocated and
only after that, road work is initiated. Fund is released on Chaitra every year, works starts from
Baisakh and during monsoon. Works is done during monsoon. This has created difficulties in
managerial and financial problems and ultimately led to poor quality of works and sometime lead
to financial irregularity.
Monitoring of road works could not be done as required due to absence of fund required to send
staff for monitoring. No separate fund is allocated for monitoring works. Dedicated fund is required
for monitoring of works.
Low bidding is major problem to maintain quality of work. Contractor is bidding at low rate, this
make difficult to complete construction work on time.
Sometime formation of User committee is difficult as the parties have disputes and do not accept
each other. Difficult to follow engineering norms for smaller fund, especially for the works that
require machine works e.g. roller.
4 RRN ASSETVALUE:
According to the recent Rural Road Inventory published by DoLIDAR, total road length of the
country is 50944 km. Earthen road is 34766 kms, gravel road 14602 and blacktop road is 1576 km.
Earthen road is 68%, gravel road 29% and blacktop road is 3 % only. Unless the road surface is
upgraded to gravel level, people will deprive of all weather access.
Many roads are constructed by the local contribution in the beginning. Some hill districts have
road asset of more than Rs. 2 billion (Sindhupalchowk district). Thus more assets are created
than the actual fund invested by the government for rural road sector. Both UC and contractor
model is used. Some works are appropriate to work through contractors' e.g. structural works
and pavement works requiring use of machine. Track opening and widening works from UC is
appropriate, whereas structural works is appropriate from contractors.

30
RRN ASSET VALUE
Table 1: National total of rural road length and equivalent asset value

Terai
Road length
Km
Rate per km
NRs. (Million)
Amount
NRs (Million)
Earthen 8204 3 24,612.0
Gravel 12320 5 61,600.0
Blacktop 938 7 6,566.0
Hill
Earthen 21540 2 43,080.0
Gravel 2119 6 12,714.0
Blacktop 637 10 6,370.0
Mountain
Earthen 5023 3 15,069.0
Gravel 162 9 1,458.0
Blacktop 1 12 12.0
Total 50944 171,481.0
Thus, tentatively rural road asset of 171 billion is created so far in the country, which is significant.
To bring to the earthen road to complete earthen level road in hill and mountain roads, same
amount is further required e.g. 43 billion and 15 billion. If the asset created could be preserved
and could be further developed to all weather level, accessibility and mobility of the rural people
will be greatly enhanced.
COST TO UPGRADE
Terai
To upgrade to gravel level To upgrade to blacktop level
length
Km
Rate/Km
Million
Cost
Million
length
Km
Rate/Km
Million
Cost
Million
Earthen 8204 2 16408 8204 2 16408
Gravel 0 12320 2 24640
Blacktop 0 0
Hill 0 0
Earthen 21540 4 86160 21540 3 64620
Gravel 0 2119 3 6357
Blacktop 0 0
Mountain 0 0
Earthen 5023 6 30138 5023 4 20092
Gravel 162 4 648
Blacktop 0
Total 132,706.0 132,765.0
But to bring to all these roads to gravel level as all weather roads, additional cost of 133 billion is
required. To bring to black top level further additional cost of another 133 billion is required.

31
5 THE ISSUES
Due to fewer budgets, some works get damaged; therefore works are to be complete type for
permanent nature. Budget release is during the onset of monsoon and works is to be carried out
during monsoon.
Due to spot gravel and section works, vehicle ply during monsoon too, though road is not gravel
throughout. All RRs are not under DDC, DOR is still involved in RR. Maintenance demand is very
high, fund is not enough. Clear demarcation of maintenance works could not be established due
incomplete state of roads.
Major agricultural product in hills and mountains during summer is potato. Unless the road is
all weather operational farmer has to transport the potato by porter, which cost very high eight to
ten times higher. Therefore to reduce the transportation cost and to maximize the farmer's profit
maximised, all weather road is needed.
Works are not good due late release of budget - at the end of fiscal year only. DDC is compelled to
release the fund, without actually completing the work in field in consideration of works that will
be presumably completed by UC.
Maintenance of roads toward systematic approach is slowly taking place, DDC/DTO slowly starting
toward quality control works in rural road sector. In the districts, where rural road projects e,g.
RAIDP,
Many district roads are now slowly being all weather roads, local people are operating vehicle fair
weather day during monsoon even in earthen roads where many spot improvement is carried out.
In such roads, now bridges are also to be constructed. Gravel road need bridges to make the roads
all weather.
Thus a huge challenge lies to meet the peoples' aspiration and expectation to make the road all
weather. This is very important task of the programme to integrate the rural area to the main
stream of national development.
Constructions of new roads were the high priority until recent past years. Now the priority is
shifted to complete the roads undertaken earlier. But maintenance aspect of road is not the major
concern of people and being shadowed.
Local people could not get full benefit from road until the road is built to all weather level. If
the road operate throughout the year, full access to health, education and market is possible and
the livelihood of could be improved. Connectivity and productivity should be maintained. After
connection of road, productivity will also increased of rural area and local product goods supply
to market centre. If village connected by road.
All weather roads has begun demonstrating its impacts through the reduction of travel time to
reach the nearest town and social amenities. Similarly, travel behavior of the beneficiaries has
changed due to easier access to work place and nearest town.
Transportation cost of goods in the hill districts is highly fluctuating in fair weather roads in the
same area due to unavailability of service during monsoon season

32
There are some new trends of shifting towards non-agricultural activities in the project areas. With
the improvement of roads, migration in search of work has increased in various districts of Tarai.
Employment opportunities through new business sector i.e. grocery shops, store houses, poultry
farming, etc have recently started in many areas.
As routine maintenance requirement, length man system is started for the maintenance works in
many districts. Mostly five km for one length man, employed for 3 to 4 months during monsoon.
In some cased local business community is also sharing. Emergency maintenance is also getting
attention of the local people. This shows some commitment from local level. But recurrent and
periodic maintenance is not yet understood in district level, which needs to be emphasised.
6 RECOMMENDATION
Some programmes and projects in DoLIDAR have shown the good trend in institutionalising the
maintenance system for rural roads under DDC and DTO. Therefore, it is recommended that the
projects should focus on maintenance mechanism to internalise in DDC and DTO to manage the
rural road asset created in the districts.
Capacity building activities of DTO and DDC and local community needs to be conducted in
the form of training and exposure visits. For institutional strengthening of DTO and DDC, road
related lab and equipment to be set up in the district - roller and mechanical equipment a lab etc.
Posts of technical staffs (engineers, sub-engineers etc) are to be increased for adequate monitoring
of maintenance works. Capacity building activities includes survey equipment/logistics, lab,
transportation, man power, relevant training, exposure visits etc.
Important district roads are being funded for many years, mostly more than 15 year ago. But these
roads are not in complete state yet. Therefore a Project Concept to complete the roads within 5
year as a "project" type is to be introducing in pilot basis. Priority roads are to be constructed for
all weather standards to operate whole the year. Recently introduced District Road Core Network
(DRCN) concept could be instrumental in identifying the important roads in district, but it is
found that, present trend of fund allocation could not meet the completion of core network of
district is also. Therefore further important roads need to be identified among the core network
and these roads are to be brought to all weather standards for first five years period.
DTICC should also function as a strong monitoring body. Present tradition of adhoc monitoring
is not effective. Monitoring scheduled should be developed so that systematic and transparent
monitoring could be established. Monitoring works has become very week activities and not
getting enough attention. Therefore clear provision of budget for monitoring is needed.
Performance based contract is recommended to introduce in pilot basis. This could function well
in Terai road.
Lack of timely release of fund has become major headache of all RTI stakeholders. This has created
hassle to complete the work during the end of fiscal year, which is coincided with monsoon.
Therefore fund should be released in the beginning of fiscal year for the smooth implementation
of RTI works.

33
Smaller and piece works get damaged. Unattended road sections between spot improvements of
stone soling or gravel are seen damaged. Therefore it is recommended to continue the sections,
rather than distributing to insignificant portions.
REFERENCES
1 DoLIDAR 2069 (2012) "Gramin Sadak Abhilekh" (Rural Road Archive), DoLIDAR, Kathmandu.
2 DoLIDAR 2013 "Nepal Rural Road Standard, 2055 1st Revision 2069", Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local
Development, DoLIDAR, Kathmandu.
3 DoLIDAR 2066 "Rural Transport Infrastructure Sector Wide Approach (RTI SWAp) Implementation Directives
2063, 1st Revision 2066," Ministry of Local Development, DoLIDAR, Local Development Construction and
Agricultural Road Project, Kathmandu.
4 Shrestha H. R. Et.al. 2011 "District Transport Planning Trend in Nepal" International Conference on Sustainable
Development of Transport System, H.R. Shrestha and U. K. Shrestha, 20-22 October 2011, Kathmandu.
5 DoLIDAR 2066 "RTI SWAp Programme Implementation Directives 2066" DoLIDAR/MLD, Kathmandu.
6 Regmi, M.C, 1987. An Economic History of Nepal (1846-1901). Varanashi, India: Nath Publishing House.
7 Zimmermann, J. and Rajbahandari, B.C., 1995. A Historical Overview of Expansion of Roads in Nepal and
Development of Department of Roads. Lalitpur, Nepal: A Paper Presented in a Talk Program on 5 June, 1995
in Swiss Development Cooperation.
We Congratulate Society of Engineers for
Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN) for the
publication of 4th
volume of journal "Rural
Infrastructure" on the auspicious occasion of
16th
Anniversary of DoLIDAR and extend our
best wishes for it's success in contributing
towards rural development of Nepal.
Dalanath Adhikari
Proprietor
Adhikari Nirman Sewa Pvt. Ltd.
Hansapur, Gorakha

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