Female sports fans are increasing in number, but remain a largely untapped market for professional sports organizations, due to the historical divide between the genders that still exists in contemporary society. This paper argues this demographic remains unattainable due to a host of existing gender barriers. These barriers can be best defined by clear categories, including a threatened male perspective, a lack of male involvement, an antiquated definition of sports fandom and inadequate research on gender differences in sports consumption, divides among the blogging community, and a dearth of marketplace knowledge on interactive online and offline content that women find engaging. This paper addresses how each of these categories specifically limits female involvement in professional sports spectatorship and suggests ways in which these barriers can be overcome. With the right cultivation, women’s social relationship to sports may very well challenge the masculine understanding of what it means to be an “authentic” sports fan, and provide an alternative understanding to how we can utilize interactive technology to create an open community for all.

1. Changing the Rules of the Game
[Gender Differences in Sports Consumption and How Interactive
Technology Can Empower the Female Sports Fan]
Brooke Hundley
Elon University
1720 Old St. Marks Church Rd
Apt. 43E
Burlington, NC 27215
1(719) 238-9152
bhundley@elon.edu
ABSTRACT
Female sports fans are increasing in number, but remain a
largely untapped market for professional sports organizations,
due to the historical divide between the genders that still exists
in contemporary society. This paper argues this demographic
remains unattainable due to a host of existing gender barriers.
These barriers can be best defined by clear categories, including
a threatened male perspective, a lack of male involvement, an
antiquated definition of sports fandom and inadequate research
on gender differences in sports consumption, divides among the
blogging community, and a dearth of marketplace knowledge on
interactive online and offline content that women find engaging.
This paper addresses how each of these categories specifically
limits female involvement in professional sports spectatorship
and suggests ways in which these barriers can be overcome.
With the right cultivation, women’s social relationship to sports
may very well challenge the masculine understanding of what it
means to be an “authentic” sports fan, and provide an alternative
understanding to how we can utilize interactive technology to
create an open community for all.
Keywords
Gender and sport spectatorship, interactive technology, sports
fandom
1.
INTRODUCTION
Women in America have made tremendous strides
towards equality in the last hundred years. The growth of female
prosperity has propelled its way through society with the passage
of laws equalizing the right to vote, the right to an equal pay, and
even the right to play sports on a level equal to men, while
simultaneously thrusting women past men in numbers of college
degree holders and household breadwinners (Rosin, 2010).
Women control approximately two-thirds of disposable income
and influence 88 percent of all purchases (Clark,
Apostolopoulou, and Gladden, 2009). Despite these shifts in the
power dynamic, gender bias has continued to permeate society
from classrooms to the workplace. One is hard pressed to find a
more antagonistic environment or a more entrenched male
culture, than in that of the sports community. While millions of
female athletes have benefited from the implementation of Title
IX to actively participate in sports, society has only just begun to
find value in the females in attendance at professional sporting
events that simply want to be part of the fan collective.
2.
DISCUSSION
2.1
Gender Assumptions in Sport
Over the growth of professional sports as an accessible
pastime for the American family, female supporters have shown
up in strong numbers, yet male devotees at these sporting events
have long carried a negative bias and a sense of supremacy, when
acknowledging this female presence (Crawford and Gosling,
2004). Some male sport spectators even go so far as to utilize
derogatory labels for females in attendance, citing female
spectatorship as strictly related to a desire to lust after the
players. However, little documented evidence supports these
male characterizations. These hostile reactions instead likely
result from fear of losing a protected male domain to female
takeover, a loss of further masculinity in an ever-changing
landscape (Rosin, 2010). Crawford and Gosling (2004)
investigated Manchester Storm ice hockey fans, and found few
differences in knowledge and commitment between the genders,
or that the physical attractiveness of players performed any
significant role in attracting women to the sport. On the
contrary, data from their female interviewees advised the sports
community that female fans are actually incredibly dedicated in
support and loyalty to their team and knowledgeable about the
sport as a whole. Still, female sports fans often remain ostracized
as though they are impeding on the male community, and are
labeled as inauthentic and undedicated in their support time and
time again by male observers. By depicting a female presence
with a derogatory label such as ice hockey’s “puck bunny” (a
specific name for a groupie), male sports fans degrade the value
of the female fan as having no worth except for engagement in
sexual promiscuity, further isolating women from the robust
sports community (p.478). This isolation coupled with the
perpetual inaccuracy that women are not interested in sports
creates a realm of male power and privilege that feels completely
off-limits to the female gender (Kane, forthcoming).
Approximately 50 million women avidly follow
professional sports and 58 percent (as of 2002) claim themselves
as avid sports fans (Bush et al., 2005). These hefty numbers
indicate the female sports fan base is not of trivial size or stature.
Women are also not wanting to just watch other women compete;
rather, women list the National Football League (NFL), Major
League Baseball (MLB), and the National Basketball
Association (NBA) prominently in their definition of sports they
find most appealing. In the NFL community alone, the effects of
the female purse strings can be felt as women comprise 44
percent of the NFL’s fan base and buy 70 percent of the leagues
licensed products, not to mention the 40 million women who
watch NFL games weekly (Bush et al., 2005). However, there
are still many sports for which women are regulated to nothing
more than a casual onlooker. Hoeber and Kerwin (2013) write,
“it is assumed a man is a sport fan unless he says he is not. A
woman is assumed to not be a sport fan, unless she proves she is
one” (p. 328). The very fact that women are expected to qualify
their deserved presence at a sporting event dictates their role in
the sports community as one of less significance and less clout
than their male counterparts.
Women have different collective reasons for attending
a sporting event than males, and believe appropriate fan behavior
to include spending time with family, supporting a spouse or
boyfriend, and socializing with other women (Hoeber & Kerwin,
2013). Men however, identify genuine sports fandom as
enjoying playing sports, or acquiring sports information, in other
words, actively participating in the game (Antunovic & Hardin,

2. 2012). These seemingly insignificant gender differences create
impediments to an all-encompassing definition of a true sports
fan. Women then find themselves struggling to be identified as
authentic while not having an understanding as to what the term
truly means, apart from highly masculinized definitions. These
social stigmas leech into the subconscious to the point that
gender bias even materializes in female-to-female interactions
questioning each other’s authenticity. In Hoeber and Kerwin’s
(2013) research female sports fans stated they found themselves
unwelcoming or unaccepting of other women who attended the
games, making derogatory statements against females not abiding
by traditional sports fan behavior, and judgmentally classifying
other female spectators as inauthentic “simply by their dress,
their conversations, or their presumed lack of knowledge”
(p.334). This further marginalizes females, as insecurity about
their own credentials with regards to fan authenticity shine
through. Thus one questions whether sports will remain a fixture
of the male realm forever; a protected interest against the rise of
women in other areas of life.
Research thus far has suggested that female fans do not
fit comfortably into predetermined notions of what it means to be
a sports fan, so what do female sports fans have in common and
how can female interests complement rather than infringe upon
male sports fan participation? Research on female and male
sports consumption motives by James and Ridinger (2012)
uncovers that males are more entrenched in the emotional
aspects of the game, connecting with the team on an empathetic
level, experiencing both joy or anguish with wins or losses, and
have a deeper investment in the game due to an upbringing
heavily involved in playing sports. This emphasizes the inherent
technical aspects of the game as heavily coveted by the male
demographic. Women, however, have a broader enjoyment of
sports and can find enjoyment in cheering on a team and the
camaraderie of watching sports with friends and family. Even in
an era of globalization, female fans feel just as much attachment
to the ‘local club’ as their male counterparts, accentuating local
community as a catalyst for female sports fan growth (Pope,
2011). Both genders can find common ground in equal
enjoyment of the action, drama, and escapism of sport, filling in
the gender gap piece by piece.
2.2
The Importance of Men
Most of the studies referenced thus far on the subject of
gender biases and barriers to the growth of female sports fans
have cited men and their perceptions of women as an obstacle to
equality in the sports fans community. However, these same
men that appear to impede the growth of female sports fans in
other studies can play a vital role in the development of a love of
sports in many females’ lives. Pope & Kirk (2012) explore this
phenomenon in their research on three generations of female
football fans. Whether it’s encouraging them to play sports to
learn indispensable skills or providing opportunities for them to
become involved as an active fan, male family members
contribute greatly to girls’ exposure to sports culture. Male role
models played an important socialization role for female football
fans across the generations, with three-quarters of women in the
study citing a male or males as key figures in their becoming a
fan during their youth, with the father cited as the most
influential figure for nearly half of all women. This speaks to the
vital role that male figures can play in developing a female sports
fan audience, and highlights a need for men to be involved from
the adolescent stage of women to nurture an interest in sports
and spark a lifelong passion. For those that miss the opportunity
to be cultivated into sports fandom at an early age, males still
played a dominant role. Male partners or friends are the
dominant introducers of live sport and sports fandom to women.
Thus, in order to overcome gender divisions in the next
generation, it is vital to bring males into the fold to encourage
young women to actively pursue their interests in the world of
sports fandom.
Familial males are not the only relationships worth
drawing upon for the growth of the female sports fan market.
College aged males are also important stakeholders in the influx
of females to sports fandom. Research on this demographic by
Wann, Schinner & Keenan (2001) showcased that male college
students with a high interest in sports were most attracted to
female sports fans with equally high interest in enjoyment of
sport overall, while males with no interest in sport were still
most attracted to females with high interest in sport and high
interest in the local team. This may seem to contradict previously
referenced studies on derogatory male behavior toward women at
professional sporting events, but rather this research is focused
on the general enjoyment of sport within personal relationship
building. This study opens the door to communicating the value
of women in male sports culture. Women who like sports are
generally seen in a positive light among their male college-aged
peers, can bond with their male peers over an understanding of
the importance of the game, and can bridge the connective
networking gap between males not interested in sports and the
sports community. All of these elements assist in redefining the
role of women and sports fandom.
2.3
Youth and the Sports Market
Alongside gender, age plays a role in the adoption of
sports fandom and the growth of a global sports audience, and
nowhere is that more evident than in one of the fastest growing
demographics in America: Generation Y. While there are no
exact ages for this group, at its core are those born between 1980
and 1994. Marketers are finding more value in reaching this
younger audience to shape the consumer market from an early
age. Bush, Bush, Clark & Bush (2009) investigated the
influence of word-of-mouth (WOM) behavior among the growing
female teenager segment in the sports market and found that
“buzz marketing” can have a profound effect on consumer
engagement, purchases, and satisfaction. With the Internet
eclipsing television as the media choice for teens, and the growth
of teenage females interested in sport, the utilization of viral
marketing and exchanges between females inviting one another
to actively participate in the sports community is pivotal. Not
only are young women spending more time playing, watching and
thinking about sports than generations before, they are also more
apt to recommend products and services to their friends that were
endorsed by their favorite athletes. A strong positive sports
influence carefully constructed to encourage and empower, rather
than manipulate, during these pivotal teen years could provide
young women with self-confidence and leadership skills that will
have them spreading the word about the importance of sports.
Further research into this age demographic was
orchestrated by Bednall, Valos, Adam, & McLeod (2012) in their
investigation into how to motivate Generation Y to attend
sporting events. Those in this demographic who grew up in a
family that supported a particular team or sport were most likely
to stay fans so long as their interests continue to be cultivated
and other interests did not become more important. Meanwhile,
for those who without that upbringing, researchers found if sports
are made sufficiently entertaining by incorporating the presence
of friends, rewarding attendance at previous matches, and
providing a mix of social activities before and after the game,
like tailgating, they could appeal to both sides of the population.
Sports organizations need to promote the game, but understand
that if the fan base is to grow they must look at the whole
environment of the sporting event and how to integrate activities

3. that enhance the event before, during, and after. Once fans have
an enjoyable experience, they are likely to become fans for life as
past attendance was found to be the best predictor of future
attendance.
2.4
Sports Marketing Mishaps
Traditional sports programming has long sought after
18-49 year old males as the demographic most interested in
watching sports. What began as a means of smart marketing to
the sole financial decision makers of the household has
transitioned into an antiquated practice as women make up a
significant portion of the sports spectator marketplace. Neverson
(2010) examines research on Canada’s WTSN network, a
company that rose and fell solely on an outward attempt at
marketing only to a female audience. WTSN was designed to
provide female sports coverage constantly and solely to a female
sports fan audience, resulting in a well-orchestrated failure. But
when asked what contributed to the networks inability to
effectively reach an audience, female media professionals cited
the only problem as women not being the type to watch a female
fan-focused sports network. In contrast, male media professionals
referenced the problem as sports being only a relationship
building activity for women, an endeavor just to spend time with
their husband or boyfriend. For others, even just trying to target
women exclusively conjures feelings of forcing a truce among the
genders, describing the branding of ‘for women only’ as one in
which women are compelled to watch to keep the network alive
for their gender’s behalf. Ultimately WTSN, like many other
marketing approaches, failed because it did not do enough
diligent research on where the female sports market audience
resides, what they want to watch, and what the barriers are to
making them regular sports programming consumers. They were
not the last however, as other marketing mishaps include the
NHL’s “Inside the Warrior” ad campaign that was, in part,
envisioned for and marketed to target female audiences (Gee,
forthcoming).
Even in an age of advanced scholarship and
demographic tools, marketers can find themselves encompassing
stereotypical gender representations and bias in their approach.
Within the NHL’s “Inside the Warrior” campaign two male
advertising agents failed to see past the clichéd personas of
women as seeking sport only for the sexual attraction they have
for the players and showcased this derogatory notion of women
as the focal point of their campaign. This advertisement depicted
a female persona with an inauthenticity in her fandom, lusting
after the male star and giving weight to the inherent lack of
knowledge on female sports fans, even among those that market
directly to this demographic. This campaign marched outdated
and misogynistic perceptions about the motivations behind
female sports fans into the open, further serving to uphold
masculine superiority within the hockey subculture.
Additionally, the largely unapologetic responses from the
executives highlight the inability of a bias so culturally
entrenched to even be recognized by the very participants in its
livelihood. Without quality research into gender differences and
female desires in the sports marketplace, archaic ideologies will
continue to persist and thwart the growth of female sports fans.
2.5
Sports Media, Interactivity, and
Gender
Sports media has changed the way viewers and sports
collide, by popularizing specific sporting events, elevating the
notoriety of players, and redefining how viewers can watch the
game. Professional sports covers terrain from the simple gaze of
a passive onlooker checking scores in a newspaper to an online
experience that allows the viewer to be completely immersed
within the game via an assortment of camera angles, neverbefore-seen interviews, and ‘private’ locker room dialogue
(Schirato, 2012). Media interactivity is luring new audiences to
the game and offering them customizable options with
personalized decision-making on the content they want. This
customization can be coupled with user ease in manipulating
content and transferring information, that has never before been
available within traditional media platforms (McMahan,
Hovland, and McMillan, 2009). Sports websites offer more
information than ever before to give even the most
unknowledgeable person an opportunity to learn by exploring
information on rules, history, teams, goals, and by extension
turning casual onlookers into sports fans and consumers
(Schirato, 2012). The interactive dimension of these
technologies offers optimism for new outreach to largely
untapped markets like female sports fans.
No sporting event reaches a grander audience over
multiplatform support than that of the Olympics. The 2008
Beijing Games was the most watched television event in U.S.
history, and utilized an extensive collection of online sports
content, with users viewing 1.3 billion pages and watching more
than 75 million video streams (Tang and Cooper, 2012). Second
only to the Olympics in coverage and viewers, the Super Bowl
remains one of the most-watched broadcasts in the world, with
over 93 million viewers tuning into the 2007 broadcast and
females representing 45 percent of the total viewing audience
(Clark, Apostolopoulou and Gladden, 2009). The results of Tang
& Cooper’s (2012) research on the Olympics divulges that,
despite differences in sports media consumption, gender
neutralization resonates in amount of viewing consumption and
media devices used. Perhaps this can be attributed to the
Olympics being a mega-sporting event, or the compelling humaninterest stories that supersede other events. Regardless, the
labeling of sports fans and defining their authenticity takes a
backseat to an all-accepting environment at the Olympics. Paired
alongside this data, Clark, Apostolopoulou and Gladden’s (2009)
investigation into the Super Bowl viewing patterns supports this
depiction of universal sports viewership. Super Bowl viewers
were found to appreciate NFL games as a social experience
regardless of gender. Males coveted the competitiveness of the
teams playing and the love of the game itself, while women
appreciated the pageantry of the event to include halftime shows
and orchestrated coin tosses. These elements showcase that men
and women can have shared differences in viewership but still
find aspects of professional sports broadcasts that appeal to their
uniqueness. Interests outside the game such as halftime
entertainment or unique storytelling can serve as an entry point
for females interested in, but not avid about, sports.
Interactive technologies and emergent online
environments are carving out new female territories like never
before. Some attribute this to the asynchronous and interactive
nature of the Internet as more accommodating to women than
other forms of mass communication (Clavio and Kian, 2010).
These new tools not only offer audiences an opportunity to dive
inside a sporting event, but can also provide escapism from the
everyday life. Gamification, or the integration of gaming
elements into existing online spaces, has produced successful
results in attracting and maintaining repeat visitors. A game
design addition to the digital sports landscape has the potential to
invite women into the sports space through a representative
character in an environment free of stigmatization and gender
bias (Royse, Lee, Undrahbuyan, Hopson, and Consalvo, 2007).
Rising rapidly alongside interactive technology are social
networking sites and online communities to attract sports fans to

4. a digital meeting space. But who is engaging with online media,
social networking sites, and participating in interactive
environments? Correa, Hinsley & De Zuniga (2010)’s work
reveals that more than half of America’s teens and young adults
use these sites and more than one-third of all Internet users
engage in these activities. A new generation of up and coming
digital natives may lead to more individualized customization
and personalization of digital sports platforms, especially for the
female consumer.
2.6
Blogging and Sports Culture
Blogging has presented itself as a means to effectively
transmit news, opinions, and ideas in an online setting (Clavio
and Kim, 2010). Within the sports blogging environment
however, there exists a dangerous fragmentation of female and
male community, as well as sound territorial impulses for males
to resurrect female stereotyping and create a sexualized online
environment. Research by Merrill, Bryant, Dolan & Chang
(forthcoming) on mainstream sports blogs, targeted towards male
sports fans aged 18-49, found rampant themes among blogs and
user comments including the recurring objectification of women,
questioning of female sports professionals credibility and desire
to seek sexual attention, and an attitude that ‘boys will be boys’
as it pertains to derogatory behavior towards women by sports
professionals. This rampant misogynist and chauvinistic behavior
online also highlights the continued existence of the male
superiority complex as it relates to women entering into the
sports space. This attitude is further heightened online where a
minority of men in everyday life might produce a louder
collective voice. This voice then articulates opinions one might
never dare say in person rallied by the positive feedback of other
males to generate a single group opinion hosted by the blogging
community. It’s important to note that contributors to sites such
as these will continue to impose barricades against any females
who pursue involvement in the sports world unless the public at
large admonishes this negative behavior.
Despite the negativity and territorial behavior of many
mainstream sports blogs targeting men, their growth in female
use for interactive communication has begun to chip away at the
‘good old boys’ club. New sports blogs are inviting female
involvement and impact by directly tailoring themselves to the
female sports fan, such as within the blog network Women Talk
Sports (Antunovic & Hardin, forthcoming). The most seemingly
successfully blogs directed at female outreach advocate balance,
health, empowerment, and personal growth. These blogs bring
visibility to the experiences of female sports fans and could lead
to a disruption of traditional gender norms by providing
meaningful discourse for female fans. It is clear that female
sports fans feel the weight of the gender divide and their
delegitimized position in the sports community as these female
centric blogs describe themselves as “one of the first sites to treat
women as legitimate football fans,” or “a blog that aims to create
a stronger (and possibly more positive) voice of female hockey
fans and what makes them tick” (p.11). In many ways, female
bloggers provide a definition of sport that can potentially lead to
a more inclusive and empowering model. Unlike in the male
domain of sports fans where women constantly have to prove
their knowledge, these blogs provide a space void of male
standards. Those looking to extend an inviting arm to the female
community might also look to the interactive community aspect
they host, providing an opportunity for female fans to connect
with each other via in-person meet ups orchestrated by Twitter or
Facebook.
Within the sports blogging community, the use of
Twitter as a micro-blogging tool is connecting sports properties
and players with their fans by sharing opinions, anecdotes,
events, and characteristics of everyday sports life in 140
characters or less. Twitter is a unique avenue for information
distribution ahead of interactivity and offers new ways to appeal
separately to each gender. Organizations like the NBA are
taking notice, and have begun to develop strategies that
incorporate better practices in Twitter use. The NBA lists their
strategy as to “give quality content; incorporate social media
offline; gamify social media efforts; personalize fans on social
media; collect fan data; fansource/crowdsource; use fans to
amplify message; and track, measure, analyze and adjust”
(Wysocki, 2012, p.23-27). With new media reaching a level of
epic proportions in users and variety, in everything from
collaborative platforms like Wikipedia and blogs, to content
providers like YouTube and Vine to networking sites like
Facebook and Linkedin, interactive environments for the public
to engage with a sports brand via creating and sharing sports
content are creating an atmosphere of community and
personalized involvement regardless of gender.
In an attempt to meet a growing interest among females
for sport content, professional sports organizations have looked
for unique opportunities to bring females into the sports
community in an inviting and respectful way outside of the
digital environment as well. The NFL has attempted to make
women lifelong fans by utilizing educational tools to offer more
knowledge about the game through a series of ‘Football 101’
clinics where women have the opportunity to interact with team
personnel on and off the field, receive instruction on different
aspects of the game, and learn more about the lives of their
favorite sports celebrities (Clark et al., 2009). These clinics
create a feeling of VIP status for their female constituents with
special autograph and photo opportunities, tours, receptions, and
gifts, and are often focused on helping the community by tying in
the organization’s charities. Those providing the clinics believe
that women will feel a connection to the team having learned
from the players, having worked with the charities, and having
bonded with other females, and take their new avid fandom back
into everyday life to bring other women into the mix.
3.
CONCLUSION
Women are a vast, but attainable market in the growth of
professional sports and the research indicates, from social
networking and blogging to marketing campaigns and VIP
treatment, that sports organizations are attempting to do all that
they can to covet this untapped market. However, within this
market lays culturally embedded biases, stereotypical labeling,
and an intimidating environment in which females feel a need to
justify their presence or be met with hostility by their male
counterparts. In order to effectively begin to chip away at this
gender divide, we must give males a new position in the sports
landscape as teachers, enticing them to let go of negative gender
marginalization and encouraging them to have an active presence
in the lives of young women to forge connections to sports. As
active participants in growing female fans, men will not only
satisfy their own desires for female companionship later in life
that bond over similar interests, but also bury the antiquated
definitions of what it means to be an authentic sports fan. This
early tutoring, coupled with interactive online experiences and
community based initiatives, will, in time, allow sports
organizations to begin to grow young female sports interest
through safe environments that promote self-confidence and give
sports a meaningful role in the lives of young women, that it has
historically only provided to men. With the right cultivation, a
new generation of women might one day proudly stand alongside
their male counterparts as active, welcomed, and inspired

5. members of the sports community.
4.
REFERENCES
[1] Antunovic, D., & Hardin, M. (forthcoming). Women and the
blogosphere: Exploring feminist approaches to sport.
International Review for the Sociology of Sport. doi:
10.1177/1012690213493106
[2] Antunovic, D., & Hardin, M. (2012). Activism in Women’s
Sports Blogs: Fandom and Feminist Potential. International
Journal of Sport Communication, 5(3), (2012): 305–322.
Retrieved from:
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20123343140.html
[3] Bednall, D. H., Valos, M., Adam, S., & McLeod, C. (2012).
Getting Generation Y to attend: Friends, interactivity and
half-time entertainment. Sport Management Review, 15(1),
80–90. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2011.04.001
[4] Bush, V., Bush, A., Clark, P., & Bush, R. (2009). Girl
power and word-of-mouth behavior in the flourishing sports
market. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 22(5), 257–264.
doi: 10.1108/07363760510611680
[5]
Clark, J. S., Apostolopoulou, A., & Gladden, J. M. (2009).
Real women watch football: gender differences in the
consumption of the NFL Super Bowl broadcast. Journal of
Promotion Management, 15(1-2), 165–183. doi:
10.1080/10496490902837510
[6] Clavio, G., & Kian, T. M. (2010). Uses and gratifications of
a retired female athlete’s Twitter followers. International
Journal of Sport Communication, 3(4), 485–500. Retrieved
from: http://sportspolitik.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/04/Clavio-and-Kian-2011.pdf
[7] Correa, T., Hinsley, A. W., & De Zuniga, H. G. (2010).
Who interacts on the web?: The intersection of users’
personality and social media use. Computers in Human
Behavior, 26(2), 247-253. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.09.003
[14] Merrill, K., Bryant, A., Dolan, E. & Chang, S.
(forthcoming). “The male gaze and online sports punditry:
Reactions to the Ines Sainz controversy on the sports
blogosphere.” Journal of Sport & Social Issues. doi:
10.1177/0193723512455920
[15] Neverson, N. (2010). Build it and the women will come?
WTSN and the advent of Canadian digital television.
Canadian Journal of Communication, 35(1), 27-48.
Retrieved from: http://www.cjconline.ca/index.php/journal/article/viewArticle/2246
[16] Pope, S. (2011). “Like pulling down Durham Cathedral and
building a brothel”: Women as “new consumer” fans?
International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 46(4), 471–
487. doi: 10.1177/1012690210384652
[17] Pope, S., & Kirk, D. (2012). The role of physical education
and other formative experiences of three generations of
female football fans. Sport, Education and Society, (aheadof-print), 1–18. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2011.646982
[18] Rosin, H. (2010, December). Hanna Rosin: New data on the
rise of women. [Video file].
http://www.ted.com/talks/hanna_rosin_new_data_on_the_ri
se_of_women.html
[19] Royse, P., Lee, J., Undrahbuyan, B., Hopson, M., &
Consalvo, M. (2007). Women and games: technologies of
the gendered self. New Media & Society, 9(4), 555–576. doi:
10.1177/1461444807080322
[20] Schirato, T. (2012). Fantasy sport and media interactivity.
Sport in Society, 15(1), 78–87. doi:
10.1080/03031853.2011.625278
[21] Tang, T., & Cooper, R. (2012). Gender, sports, and new
media: Predictors of viewing during the 2008 Beijing
Olympics. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media,
56(1), 75–91. doi: 10.1080/08838151.2011.648685
[8] Crawford, G., & Gosling, V. K. (2004). The myth of the
“puck bunny” female fans and men’s ice hockey. Sociology,
38(3), 477–493. doi: 10.1177/0038038504043214
[22] Wann, D. L., Schinner, J., & Keenan, B. L. (2001a). Males’
impressions of female fans and nonfans: There really is
“something about Mary.” North American Journal of
Psychology, 3(2), 183. Retrieved from:
http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2001-11562-001
[9] Gee, S. (forthcoming). “Sexual ornament” or “spiritual
trainer”? Envisioning and marketing to a female audience
through the NHL’s “inside the warrior” advertising
campaign. Communication & Sport. doi:
10.1177/216747951349622
[23] Wysocki, M. (2012). The role of social media in sports
communication: An analysis of NBA team’s strategy.
(Master’s thesis). Retrieved from
http://www.american.edu/soc/communication/upload/Capsto
ne-Wysocki.pdf
[10] Hoeber, L., & Kerwin, S. (2013). Exploring the experiences
of female sport fans: A collaborative self-ethnography. Sport
Management Review. 16(3), 326-336. doi:
10.1016/j.smr.2012.12.002
[11] James, J. D., & Ridinger, L. L. (2002). Female and male
sport fans: A comparison of sport consumption motives.
Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(3), 260–278. Retrieved
from: http://search.proquest.com/docview/215871024?
accountid=10730
[12] Kane, M. (forthcoming). The better sportswomen get, the
more the media ignore them. Communication & Sport. doi:
10.1177/2167479513484579
[13] McMahan, C., Hovland, R., & McMillan, S. (2009). Online
marketing communications: exploring online consumer
behavior by examining gender differences and interactivity
within Internet advertising. Journal of Interactive
Advertising, 10(1), 61–76. doi:
10.1080/15252019.2009.10722163

6. members of the sports community.
4.
REFERENCES
[1] Antunovic, D., & Hardin, M. (forthcoming). Women and the
blogosphere: Exploring feminist approaches to sport.
International Review for the Sociology of Sport. doi:
10.1177/1012690213493106
[2] Antunovic, D., & Hardin, M. (2012). Activism in Women’s
Sports Blogs: Fandom and Feminist Potential. International
Journal of Sport Communication, 5(3), (2012): 305–322.
Retrieved from:
http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20123343140.html
[3] Bednall, D. H., Valos, M., Adam, S., & McLeod, C. (2012).
Getting Generation Y to attend: Friends, interactivity and
half-time entertainment. Sport Management Review, 15(1),
80–90. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2011.04.001
[4] Bush, V., Bush, A., Clark, P., & Bush, R. (2009). Girl
power and word-of-mouth behavior in the flourishing sports
market. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 22(5), 257–264.
doi: 10.1108/07363760510611680
[5]
Clark, J. S., Apostolopoulou, A., & Gladden, J. M. (2009).
Real women watch football: gender differences in the
consumption of the NFL Super Bowl broadcast. Journal of
Promotion Management, 15(1-2), 165–183. doi:
10.1080/10496490902837510
[6] Clavio, G., & Kian, T. M. (2010). Uses and gratifications of
a retired female athlete’s Twitter followers. International
Journal of Sport Communication, 3(4), 485–500. Retrieved
from: http://sportspolitik.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/04/Clavio-and-Kian-2011.pdf
[7] Correa, T., Hinsley, A. W., & De Zuniga, H. G. (2010).
Who interacts on the web?: The intersection of users’
personality and social media use. Computers in Human
Behavior, 26(2), 247-253. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2009.09.003
[14] Merrill, K., Bryant, A., Dolan, E. & Chang, S.
(forthcoming). “The male gaze and online sports punditry:
Reactions to the Ines Sainz controversy on the sports
blogosphere.” Journal of Sport & Social Issues. doi:
10.1177/0193723512455920
[15] Neverson, N. (2010). Build it and the women will come?
WTSN and the advent of Canadian digital television.
Canadian Journal of Communication, 35(1), 27-48.
Retrieved from: http://www.cjconline.ca/index.php/journal/article/viewArticle/2246
[16] Pope, S. (2011). “Like pulling down Durham Cathedral and
building a brothel”: Women as “new consumer” fans?
International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 46(4), 471–
487. doi: 10.1177/1012690210384652
[17] Pope, S., & Kirk, D. (2012). The role of physical education
and other formative experiences of three generations of
female football fans. Sport, Education and Society, (aheadof-print), 1–18. doi: 10.1080/13573322.2011.646982
[18] Rosin, H. (2010, December). Hanna Rosin: New data on the
rise of women. [Video file].
http://www.ted.com/talks/hanna_rosin_new_data_on_the_ri
se_of_women.html
[19] Royse, P., Lee, J., Undrahbuyan, B., Hopson, M., &
Consalvo, M. (2007). Women and games: technologies of
the gendered self. New Media & Society, 9(4), 555–576. doi:
10.1177/1461444807080322
[20] Schirato, T. (2012). Fantasy sport and media interactivity.
Sport in Society, 15(1), 78–87. doi:
10.1080/03031853.2011.625278
[21] Tang, T., & Cooper, R. (2012). Gender, sports, and new
media: Predictors of viewing during the 2008 Beijing
Olympics. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media,
56(1), 75–91. doi: 10.1080/08838151.2011.648685
[8] Crawford, G., & Gosling, V. K. (2004). The myth of the
“puck bunny” female fans and men’s ice hockey. Sociology,
38(3), 477–493. doi: 10.1177/0038038504043214
[22] Wann, D. L., Schinner, J., & Keenan, B. L. (2001a). Males’
impressions of female fans and nonfans: There really is
“something about Mary.” North American Journal of
Psychology, 3(2), 183. Retrieved from:
http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2001-11562-001
[9] Gee, S. (forthcoming). “Sexual ornament” or “spiritual
trainer”? Envisioning and marketing to a female audience
through the NHL’s “inside the warrior” advertising
campaign. Communication & Sport. doi:
10.1177/216747951349622
[23] Wysocki, M. (2012). The role of social media in sports
communication: An analysis of NBA team’s strategy.
(Master’s thesis). Retrieved from
http://www.american.edu/soc/communication/upload/Capsto
ne-Wysocki.pdf
[10] Hoeber, L., & Kerwin, S. (2013). Exploring the experiences
of female sport fans: A collaborative self-ethnography. Sport
Management Review. 16(3), 326-336. doi:
10.1016/j.smr.2012.12.002
[11] James, J. D., & Ridinger, L. L. (2002). Female and male
sport fans: A comparison of sport consumption motives.
Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(3), 260–278. Retrieved
from: http://search.proquest.com/docview/215871024?
accountid=10730
[12] Kane, M. (forthcoming). The better sportswomen get, the
more the media ignore them. Communication & Sport. doi:
10.1177/2167479513484579
[13] McMahan, C., Hovland, R., & McMillan, S. (2009). Online
marketing communications: exploring online consumer
behavior by examining gender differences and interactivity
within Internet advertising. Journal of Interactive
Advertising, 10(1), 61–76. doi:
10.1080/15252019.2009.10722163