3rd Mekong Forum on Water, Food & Energy. Presentation from Session 15: Better dams for food and livelihoods.

1. MK1: Gender, Livelihoods &
Decision-making
A qualitative study in a hydropower
resettlement site in Lao PDR
N. Weeratunge, O. Joffre, S. Senaratne Sellamuttu,
B. Bouahom, A. Keophoxay
Mekong Forum on Water, Food & Energy
Hanoi, 21 November 2013

2. Key Messages
A person’s livelihood decision-making is about
choosing one option over others
 These choices are shaped by his/her socio-cultural
values, norms and attitudes, as much as by
economic and political factors
 Decision-making is often gendered as livelihood
activities and tasks differ according to gender roles,
norms and values
 Livelihood trajectories, social network maps and
perceptions of wellbeing help to uncover these
values, norms and attitudes

◦ material, relational and subjective domains

Decisions result in benefits or costs
◦ these are social (relational), cultural
(relational/subjective), emotional (subjective) as well as
economic (material)

3. Objectives of the study

To validate results on
decision-making in the
MK1 Household
Livelihoods Survey in Lao
PDR
◦ A relatively small number of
respondents answered
questions on decisionmaking and control of
income in Lao upstream
and headpond sites
◦ A large-scale HH survey
cannot go into the
complexities of decision-

4. The complexity of decision-making

Decisions relate to a range of livelihood
activities,
◦ farming, fishing, provisioning, childcare within HH

Even within one livelihood activity (e.g. farming),
decisions for a range of tasks can be made by
different individuals within HH
◦ purchase of inputs, hiring labor, cooking for labor,
land preparation, sowing, weeding, fertilizing, pest
control, harvesting, processing, sale, use of income

Decision-making is both a task and a process
◦ While an ultimate decision might be made by one
person, others might contribute to or influence the
decision-making process

Difficult to capture and understand the
implications of this complexity in a large-scale
survey or economic study/modeling using
limited variables

5. Conceptual approach on decisionmaking builds on:

Social wellbeing approach (McGregor
2008)
◦ What a person/HH considers a “good life” to
be and what livelihood strategies s/he would
pursue to achieve this “good life”

Social relations approach to gender
analysis (Kabeer 1994, 1996, 2001)
◦ Focus on “agency”: “the ability to define
one’s goals and act upon them”

6. Conceptual framework: Social
wellbeing

a material dimension which focuses
on what (resources) a person has
and the extent to which the needs of
the person are met

a relational or social dimension
which considers the social
relationships in which a person
engages to pursue wellbeing
◦ E.g. relations which give access to
resources and markets, or shape
behaviour through institutions/social
structures

a subjective or cognitive dimension
which takes account of a person’s
level of satisfaction/ sense of security
with the quality of life he or she
achieves

7. Gender analysis: Social relations
approach (based on norms and practices)
social relations

determine gender roles, rights, responsibilities and
claims over others
 institutions (market, state, community, family) key
to producing and maintaining gender inequalities
◦
characterized by rules, resources, people, activities,
power
women’s empowerment a process of acquiring the
ability to make strategic life choices by those who
have been denied this ability
◦ Made up of three interlinked dimensions which shape
individual choices
 Resources (material, human, social enable choices;
current access + future claims)
 Agency “the ability to define one’s goals and act
upon them”
 (decision-making; also negotiation, persuasion,
deception, manipulation)
 Achievements (“well-being outcomes”of previous
choices - related to survival, security and autonomy)

8. Key methods/tools (Ethnographic)



Focus group gender-disaggregated tool to
assess a complex range of decisions and
gendered norms underlying livelihood
decision-making
Individual livelihood trajectories to assess
decision-making over time and to uncover
values, norms and attitudes influencing
this decision-making
Individual social network maps to assess
persons and organizations outside the HH
influencing decision-making of HH
members

9. Study context





Theun Himboun dam –
upstream resettlement site in
Bolikhamxay Province
181 HHs resettled from four
villages Phonkeo, Sansi,
Thambing, Sopchat
Main ethnic groups: Tai Maen,
Tai Yor
Focus groups (F/M)
Individual qualitative interviews
centered on livelihood
trajectory and social network
maps
◦ 9 F/9M from all former villages;
Tai Maen ,Tai Yor ethnic groups
+ 3 from other ethnic groups

Key informant interviews on
current status of resettlement
process and changes in
livelihoods since survey

10. Results from livelihood
trajectories

11. Women
Men
I got married at 17 years and moved to my
husband’s house in Thambing village. Our main
farming was shifting cultivation of upland rice and
tree plantations. We decided on the selection of
plots and types of crops together. (P., Female, Tai
Maen)
I cultivated upland rice on 2 plots. Both of us
decided on the rice varieties together. We cultivated
khao mun mixed with khao mong. We grew mixed
varieties because we were following the traditional
methods, which had been taught by our parents.
Our total rice yield was three tons: 1 ton was kept
for our own use and the other 2 tons were sold. (A.,
Male, Tai Maen)
My husband is the one who decided on the upland
rice crop and plot each year. (K., Female, Tai
Maen)
I concentrated on fishing and on deciding on the
sale of cattle each year. (D., Male, Tai Yor)
I decided to take up weaving again [when we
moved] here. I have time to stay at home to take
care of my children and also have time to take a
rest in the afternoon. I got funding and support for
the weaving from the Provincial Women’s Union.
Weaving contributes to my household income and I
also weave my own skirts. (M., Female, Tai Maen)
My wife is the one who goes to Lak Sao to buy
vegetable seeds but we both select the rice plot and
rice varieties to plant in the field together. (R., Male,
Tai Maen)
All the decisions were taken by my husband as
head of the family. He suggested raising livestock,
especially poultry and pigs. I was helping my
neighbors with upland rice cultivation and they paid
me in cash. My husband decided that weaving was
not a good option for me because it takes time to
complete a skirt and we cannot be sure when it will
When I heard about the village resettlement plan
from the company and that they would be
establishing a new resettlement village, I decided to
ask them for an opportunity to work. Then they
gave me a chance to work in constructing the
houses. At that time, I could earn a lot of money
from this job. I got 50,000 kip per day. (B., Male, Tai

12. Key results from livelihood
trajectories
Most livelihoods decisions are considered to be
“joint”
 Decisions relating to upland rice (including harvest
rituals), fishing, cattle, hunting and education are
more influenced/made by men
 Decisions relating to riverbank gardens, vegetable
gardens, NTFP collection, weaving, childcare and
cooking more influenced/made by women
 Ethnicity a factor in decision-making, as well as on
extent of male influence

◦ Tai Yor more focused on upland rice and fishing, Tai
Maen on multiple livelihoods; Tai Maen decisionmaking is relatively “joint”, while men have more
influence among Tai Yor

Farming decisions of young couples often made by
parents –i.e. decision-making beyond husband-wife
unit

13. Factors influencing decisionmaking: Values
All
Men
Food/rice security (M, S)
Upland rice as tradition/identity
(R,S)
Soil fertility (M)
Fishing as income (M)
Women
Kinship (R)
Riverbank gardens as income (M)
Intergenerational care (R)
Conformity (R)
Tai Maen
Respect (R)
Opportunity-seeking (S)
House (M,R,S)
Innovation (S)
Money (M)
Tai Yor
Modern services (M)
Protection of Pi (Spirit) (R,S)
Education (M, R, S)
Tai Maen women
Weaving as income and skill (M,
S)

14. I would say that rubber plantation work is not hard as
upland rice cultivation but I will continue upland rice
cultivation in the resettlement site to make sure that I
have enough rice for the household. The agricultural
land here is not suitable for rubber in any case. (B.,
Female, Tai Maen)
Upland rice is most important [for wellbeing]
because it is our tradition for generations…In the
past several households used to hold harvest rituals
together but now our new fields are in different
places so each household has to hold its own ritual.
(Male Focus Group)
After 20 years [in Thambing] I was invited by a
relative to move to Sopchat. After discussing with
the family, I decided to move there because the soil
was better than in Thambing. And we also lived
close to our relatives. (L., Male, Tai Yor)
I got married when I was 17 years old and moved to
my husband’s house. I continued with upland rice
cultivation and [riverbank] vegetable gardening as
before. At that time, chillie was the main crop that I
could earn a lot of money from - about 10 million kip
per year. (D., Female, Tai Maen)
I got married when I was 20 years old and my wife
asked me to move to stay with her family because
there is no one to take care of her parents.
Therefore, I had to follow her decision.(S., Male, Tai
Maen)
In 2011 I moved to the resettlement village. My family came
before the company built the houses. My husband and I
thought it would be a good opportunity to come early to the
village because I wanted to build my own grocery shop and
hoped there would be good business here. I invested in the
shop on my own with my savings without anybody’s support.
With the profits from the shop, I bought pigs, feed, a
refrigerator and an air compressor [for vehicles]. (A.,
Female, Tai Maen)
From my experience, education is important for life. I
do not mind if my children go for higher education
and get married with partners from other districts or
provinces. Farming is hard and difficult. I don’t want
my children to have to work like me. I will continue
to encourage and support my children to get a higher
level of education than I have. I don’t care if there is
I am unhappy that I had to stop cultivating upland
rice and cannot hold the ceremony for Pi (Spirit)
after the harvest.. (N., Male, Tai Yor)

15. Factors influencing decisionmaking: Norms and practices

Gender division of labor
◦ Flexible but with some areas clearly demarcated for women
such as weaving, childcare, cooking

Labor relations
◦ Husband and wife or hired labor (no exchange labor except
for livestock); high work burden for women; lack of labor in
some HHs

Post-marital residence
◦ Mostly patrilocal, but also ambilocal/matrilocal/bilocal

Assets/Inheritance
◦ Bilateral, dependent on parental care

Capabilities
◦ Education level – of women lower than of men; of Tai Yor
lower than of Tai Maen

Ostracism
◦ When individual is associated with misfortune, no support
from others in making decisions

16. Factors influencing decisionmaking: Attitudes/feelings

Dependency on/independence from the company
◦ To cultivate or not influenced by rice provided by
company and no. family members, as well as soil fertility
in new fields and costs to reach old upland fields
◦ Option to return to cultivating upland in former villages

Risk taking/aversion
◦ Adapt to new livelihoods – weaving, fishing, home
gardens
◦ Not taking credit for livestock

Insecurity
◦ Of the future – lack of rice, food, soil fertility, income

Fear
◦ Of water - restricts fishing among individuals

Pride/Satisfaction
◦ Weaving, enough rice for the HH for the year, house,
electricity, water supply, education

17. Social network mapping

18. Social network analysis

19. Social networks influence decision-making
Networks of men/rich denser than of women/poor
 Tai Maen have kin networks beyond village
 Women’s networks comprise both F & M, while men’s
networks are mostly male
 Linkages with kin and friends are perceived as strong,
and mostly confined to same ethnic group
 Linkages with buyers are considered somewhat strong
and are cross-ethnic

◦ Mostly female for women; M+F for men

Linkages with suppliers, also cross ethnic are
perceived to be weak, except by Tai Maen women
◦ Mostly female for women; M+F for men

Buyers and suppliers are from nearby town (Lak Sao)
for both women and men; women also deal with
buyers in the village

20. Social networks (ctd.)


Linkages with community-based organizations are
perceived as somewhat strong by women but as
weak by men
Linkages to the company, government and temple
are considered weak by majority

21. Reworking livelihoods: wellbeing
perceptions and value orientation



Wellbeing oriented towards upland rice
(material/subjective) by most
Women: identified care by children (and
support of husband) as important for
wellbeing (relational)
Tai Maen men: range of perceptions on
wellbeing (material)
Most
important for
a good life in
the village
Women
Tai Maen
Material:
Upland rice (3)
Money (1)
Upland rice (1)
House (1)
Money (1)
(Pouk)
Relational
Husband (1)
Children (1)
Tai Yor
Material
Upland rice (1)
Vegetable
garden (1)
Upland rice (1)
Lowland
paddy field (1)
Money for
children’s
education (1)
(Tai Taen)
Relational
Children (1)
Men
Tai Maen
Material
Upland rice (1)
Fishing (1)
Water supply
(1)
Higher
education (1)
Goats and
chickens (1)
Relational
Respect (1)
(Phoutai)
Tai Yor
Material
Upland rice (4)
Lowland
paddy field (2)
Fishing (1)
Relational

22. Gendered changes in decisionmaking after resettlement: Costs
and benefits







Upland rice - men’s control limited by new land use
patterns (material, relational and subjective costs)
Fishing – men’s control has increased (material
benefits)
Riverbank gardening – women’s control has
decreased (material costs)
NTFP – women’s control has decreased (material
costs)
Weaving – women’s control has increased (material
and subjective benefits)
Livestock – women’s control unchanged; men’s
control over cattle decreased (material costs)
Education – men’s control unchanged but women
have increased participation in decisions (relational
and subjective benefits)

23. Thank you