1. Learning: process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior. Behavioral learning theories: explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors. The focus on the external is key…some people believe that there’s more going on than meets the eye.
2. Because of an experience… Lessons on the sound “th” makes… Automobile accident… Winning a video game…
3. Your behavior changes for a long time You play more video games You avoid this street. You say “/th/” when you see T-H.
11. Contiguity When two things are next to each other, they are “contiguous.” Stimulus Paired With Response 7x8 The notes that make a C major chord Date of the Declaration of Independence Gender of French word “jour” Types of blood vessels Ed psych guy with theory of peer learning 56 CEG 1776 Masculine Arteries, veins, capillaries Vygotsky Contiguity is a great way to learn facts that are necessary to know. It is not necessarily a good way to learn how to APPLY or use those facts. Contiguity learning strategies: flash cards, drills, worksheets, repetition. One purpose of the pictures in these reading guides is to help you associate ideas with pictures you can remember.
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13. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov’s Dog) Unconditioned stimulus Don’t worry about “unconditioned” just yet. This is the stimulus. What do you think the dog will do? (How would you respond if you were REALLY hungry????)
14. Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Doggie drool When the dog gets the dog food, it drools or salivates. This is an involuntary response—the dog does not plan to drool—it just happens. Unconditioned stimulus (US): stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response. Unconditioned response (UR): naturally occurring emotional or physiological response.
15. Classical Conditioning As teachers, we can manipulate this response by causing the animal to associate something else with the dog food. In this case, there is a lab worker who always provides the food. The lab worker initially was a neutral stimulus: stimulus not connected to a response.
16. Classical Conditioning The lab worker always brings the dog food to the dog. So the worker gets ASSOCIATED with the dog food in the dog’s mind. This is an example of contiguity learning. If you experience something good, you might associate that good thing with some other thing. For example, if you win some money in the lottery, you might associate that with the lucky rabbit foot that you put in your pocket that morning.
17. Classical conditioning Conditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning.
18. Classical Conditioning Doggie drool Conditioned response Because the dog associates the lab worker with food, the dog begins drooling when it sees the lab worker, whether or not the lab worker has food. Similarly, you might put your lucky rabbit foot in your pocket the next time you plan to buy a lottery ticket. Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response (CR): learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
37. Operant Conditioning Behavior You leave for work early Jimmy calls Billy a name A child misbehaves in class You speed You answer a question Response Consequence Behavior
38. Operant Conditioning Consequence (Stimulus) Behavior You avoid heavy traffic You leave for work early Billy ignores the name calling Jimmy calls Billy a name The teacher gets angry and chaos breaks out A child misbehaves in class The police officer gives you a ticket You speed The teacher praises you You answer a question Response Consequence Behavior
39. Operant Conditioning Consequence (Stimulus) Behavior increases or Behavior decreases Learning (Response): You leave early again. You avoid heavy traffic You leave for work early Jimmy doesn’t do that again Billy ignores the name calling Jimmy calls Billy a name The child does it again The teacher gets angry and chaos breaks out A child misbehaves in class You don’t speed next time The police officer gives you a ticket You speed You try to answer another question The teacher praises you You answer a question Response (increase or decrease) Consequence Behavior
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41. Types of Consequences The type of consequence determines the learning. Reinforcing consequences increase behavior and both the lack of reinforcement and punishment decrease the behavior. Increase in behavior (reinforcement) Decrease in behavior ( punishment ) Decrease in behavior ( lack of reinforcement ) Reinforcer: any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again.. Reinforcement: use of consequences to strengthen behavior. You leave early again. You avoid heavy traffic You leave for work early Jimmy doesn’t do that again Billy ignores the name calling Jimmy calls Billy a name The child does it again The teacher gets angry and chaos breaks out A child misbehaves in class You don’t speed next time The police officer gives you a ticket You speed You try to answer another question The teacher praises you You answer a question Response (increase or decrease) Consequence Behavior
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44. Punishment: Two Types Presentation Punishment : learner’s behavior decreases due to being presented with a punisher (such as a bad grade which leads to a student goofing off less). Removal punishment : a learner’s behavior decreases because he or she is removed from the situation (or positive reinforcement for the behavior no longer is possible). For instance, a child is given “time out” so no longer gets positive reinforcement from other students for clowning around. Punishers : consequences which weaken behavior or decrease their frequency. The process of using punishers to decrease behavior is called punishment . Aversive: irritating or unpleasant
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48. Continuous vs. Intermittent Continuous : a pattern in which every response is reinforced; you reward all instances of a behavior. If you give a star for every single homework assignment turned in, you are using a continuous schedule of reinforcement. Intermittent : a pattern in which a behavior is reinforced only periodically; you only reward some instances of a behavior. If you do not give out a star for every single homework assignment, then you are using intermittent reinforcement.
49. Interval vs. Ratio Interval : you reward after a period of time. For example, you reinforce (reward) homework only on Mondays and you do not reward it on other days. Or you reward homework on random days (we’ll see more about this in a moment). Interval is related to time. Ratio: you reward after a number of instances of a behavior. For example, you reward every five homework assignments or you reward after a random number of completed assignments. Ratio has to do with the number of times a behavior appears. Interval: how long between behavior & reinforcement Ratio: the number of responses before you get a reinforcement.
50. Fixed vs. variable Your interval or your ratio can be fixed or variable . If it is fixed , then you reward in relation to a specific period of time (every Monday) or a specific number of instances of behavior (every 5 homework assignments). If it is variable , then you reward randomly in relation to either time or number of instances.
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52. Reinforcement schedules: Why? Continuous: offers steepest learning curve (students learn behavior quickly because it is consistently rewarded) but behavior disappears when reinforcements disappear. For example, students rewarded with pizza coupons will read books but when the pizza coupons stop, the students for whom the coupons were the only reward (they didn’t like reading in the first place) stop reading. Intermittent: requires behavior to be performed occasionally without reward or without immediate reward. For example, students don’t know when they will get the pizza coupons, so they read some books without pizza coupons. The teacher can give the pizza coupon for every fifth book (fixed ratio), randomly (variable ratio), every Friday (fixed interval), or on a random weekday (variable interval). The result is that the behavior doesn’t disappear as easily.
53. Intermittent rewards and gambling Gambling offers a wonderful (and dreadful) example of how intermittent rewards dramatically reinforce behavior. Slot machines and lotteries reward on an intermittent variable ratio basis : your chances of winning are random every time you play. What keeps a person pulling the arm of a slot machine or playing the lottery? The thought that “maybe this time I’ll get the reward.” When the reward comes, it is emotionally powerful because of the efforts made that were not rewarded. For some people, this idea can lead to a profound addiction to gambling. Other forms of gambling may involve more skill, but random chance still influences the outcome and the reward schedule still strongly contributes to the maintenance of the behavior. By the way, the house always wins.
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56. Antecedents: Environment Your classroom environment shapes behavior. In the above picture, the environment makes it possible for the students to pass notes. They would be less likely to do so if the teacher were writing on an overhead projector (and therefore facing the students). If you have students sitting around tables, that environment encourages interaction. Desks in rows facing the front discourages interaction. A large window may cause some children to be distracted. Buzzing florescent lights also may distract some students. A neat, orderly environment is less distracting to students whereas a chaotic environment can engender bad behavior from students. “Antecedent” is something that comes before something else. In this case, the environment comes before the behavior of the students. Antecedent : stimuli that precede behavior. Stimulus control: capacity for the presence of absence of antecedents to cause behaviors.
57. Antecedents: Prompts and cues Prompts and cues are specific antecedent stimuli intended to produce behaviors teachers want to reinforce . “Comes before,” as in the prompts and cues come before the desired behavior Hints Stimulus, something that stimulates, creates a need to make a response To make stronger In other words: Teachers use hints to help students behave in a desirable way that they can praise. The hints happen before the behavior. Cue: providing a stimulus that “sets up” a desired behavior. Prompt: a reminder that follows a cue to make sure the person react to the cue.
58. Cues and prompts What do you need to do next? Show me what you need to do.
59. Applied Behavioral Analysis Identify target behaviors: What needs to be changed about what the student is doing? Establish a baseline: You can’t know if what you are doing is working unless you know what is happening. Count up the problem behaviors over a period of time. Choose reinforcers and punishers: Make sure these are likely to succeed. For example, some kids like stickers and others don’t care about them. Stickers are not a reinforcer for all children. Be sure to be consistent in using the reinforcers and punishers. This technique does not work if you are inconsistent. Measure changes in behavior: This is how you know whether or not your intervention is working. If the behavior is decreasing, you are on the right track. If it is increasing or staying the same, you need to think of something else to do (e.g., different reinforcers). Reduce frequency of reinforcers: You don’t want to send a kid to the next grade who still needs to have tokens for reading or whatever your system is. Also, see slides on intermittent reinforcements for reasons to reduce your frequency of reinforcers. Applied Behavior Analysis: the application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior. Behavior modification: systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior.
60. Applied Behavioral Analysis Identify target behaviors: A student gets out of her chair during individual work time. Establish a baseline: She does it three times, on average, every day. Choose reinforcers and punishers: She likes video games. You make a deal: for every ten minutes she remains seated during work time, she will get a token (a paper clip). When she has three paper clips, she can play a new video game on the computer during free time. If she gets up, she does not get the token and she cannot play the video game. Measure changes in behavior: On the first day, she gets up once, so she only has two paper clips. On the second day, she stays in her seat, receives 3 paper clips, and plays the video game. On the third day she slips, but succeeds on the fourth day. At the end of the second week, she is staying in her seat during the whole work time. Reduce frequency of reinforcers: You begin reinforcing intermittently. You phase out the whole system within a month.
71. Task analysis: an example Without realizing it, I did a task analysis of bicycle riding when I decided to teach my little sister how to ride. I planned all components of this lesson before I taught it. First, I had her sit on the seat and use her feet to propel herself, so she could start to get the feel of balance. Then I taught her how to use the brake. After she was comfortable with these skills, I took her to a gentle slope and she was able to go down the slope without falling (she had learned balance) or being scared (she knew how to stop). When she was able to go down the slope, then I taught her how to use the pedals. She learned to ride a bike in less than an hour. I learned how to be a teacher (I was probably nine).
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86. What does this student want? Attention? Then how can we help the student get attention in a more positive way? Retaliation? Then how can we help the student solve social problems more effectively?
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98. The fiddle fairy This is my seven-year-old violin student, Anna. When she first started playing, she had a hard time practicing. Her grandmother made sure she had an instrument available at the after school babysitter’s, but that didn’t work (although the babysitter was very cooperative). So, we came up with the Fiddle Fairy. The Fiddle Fairy comes to children who practice. Every week Anna collected four stickers on her practice record (4 15-minute session), the Fiddle Fairy brought a little gift (thanks, grandma!). I did two rewards in a row and then began intermittent rewards. She now no longer needs the Fiddle Fairy—she is choosing to practice on her own. She has seen how practicing pays off, both in working on her Christmas CD and in being able to play for a bunch of grownups at a Bluegrass jam.
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102. Antecedents Classical conditioning Conditioned response Conditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Unconditioned stimulus Conse- quence Contiguity Continuous reinforcement schedule Intermittent reinforcement schedule Cues Prompts General- ization Discrim- ination Extinction Learning Positive reinforce- ment Negative reinforcement Operant conditioning Potency Satiation Applied behavior analysis Cognitive behavior modification Cognitive modeling Inhibition Modeling Premack principle Presentation punishment Removal punishment Productive learning environ- ment Punishers Punishment Reinforce- ment Reinforcer Reinforce-ment schedule Self- modeling Self-regula-tion Shaping Social cognitive theory Vicarious learning Behavioral learning theories Stimulus Response Respondents Neutral stimulus Operants Aversive Ratio schedule Interval schedule Stimulus control Behavior modification Reprimands Response cost Social isolation Time out Positive behavioral supports Functional behavioral assessment Good behavior game Group Conse- quences Token Rein- forcement system Contingency contract Social Learning theory Observational learning Vicarious reinforce-ment Self-reinforcement Self-efficacy Ripple effect Self- management Self- instruction Vocabulary
