Dr. mike Overton presented this information for DAIReXENT on Monday, March 18, 2013. For more information, please see our archived webinars page at www.extension.org/pages/15830/archived-dairy-cattle-webinars.

1. Transition Management
Challenges of Dairy Cattle
Michael Overton, DVM, MPVM
Elanco Knowledge Solutions – Dairy
Athens, GA
Denise Rich – therichartist.com
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2. Transition Period
• Traditionally considered from -21 to 21-DIM
• More apparent that transition actually starts at dry-off:
– 90-day period that is critical for success
– Far Dry, Close-up and Fresh Periods
• Period of significant stress on all cows
• Sets the stage for future productivity and repro
performance
90-Day “Transition”
Far Dry Period Close-up Dry Period Calving Fresh/ Early Lactation
-60 -21 0 30
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3. Primary Take Away: Managing Energy
Balance & Immune Function Helps
Mitigate Impact of Transition Challenges
• Cows undergo tremendous changes from late gestation
to early lactation
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4. Complex Interrelationships of
Transition Cow Diseases
Dotted line denotes
tentative association
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5. Transition Management Keys for Improved
Health, Production and Reproduction
1. Minimize feed intake depression and negative nutrient
balance before calving (metabolic disease)
2. Minimize risk and impact of dystocia
3. Minimize risk and impact of hypocalcemia (milk fever)
4. Minimize risk and impact of infectious disease
(mastitis, metritis, etc)
5. Promote rapid return to positive nutrient balance
(maximize rise in feed intake after calving)
Dry-off Calving
Far-Dry Close-up/ Fresh
Springer
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6. Transitional Management Key # 1:
Minimize Negative Nutrient Balance and Drop in
Feed Intake Before Calving
• The level (and amount of change) of the feed intake before
calving has a huge impact on:
– Immune function
– Risk of metabolic disease (ketosis)
– Start-up milk
– Feed intake after calving
• It is common to hear…
“We need to maximize feed intake in close-up cows”! (?)
• However, a more correct approach would be to minimize
the decrease in voluntary feed intake
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7. What is Happening to Feed Intake?
DMI 650
23 NEFA
21 550
19
450
NEFA, mEq/L
DMI (kg/d)
17
350
15
13 250
11
150
9
7 50
-21 -18 -15 -12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Day relative to calving
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Overton TR.. 2000. http://vaca.agro.uncor.edu/~pleche/material/Material%20II/A%20archivos%20internet/Alimentacion/transicion.pdf
Accessed 1/19/13.

8. NEFA’s, Fat and Ketosis…
• Triglyceride:
– 3 Non-esterifed fatty acids
– Glycerol backbone
• Fat mobilization increases:
– Due to increased energy demand (lactation)
– As a consequence of increased GH
– As a consequence of stress response (epinephrine)
– Excessive mobilization can lead to ketosis
• Fat mobilization blocked by “normal” insulin
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9. What is Ketosis?
• Defined as increased ketone bodies in the blood
– Acetoacetate
– Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB)
– Acetone
• Excreted in the milk and urine
• Characterized by hypoglycemia, ↑ NEFA and ↑
circulating ketone bodies, depressed appetite
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10. Ruminant Physiology
• Ruminants do not obtain glucose directly from the diet
• Fermented carbohydrates converted to VFA’s by rumen
– Acetate – used in fatty acid synthesis
• Source – fiber (hay, silage, some by-products)
– Propionate – major substrate for gluconeogenesis
• Source – fermentable carbohydrates such as starch & sugar
– Butyrate – converted to ketones for energy
• Source – produced in rumen but also ingestion of preformed
• Constant state of gluconeogenesis (making glucose)
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11. Fetal Metabolism – Late Pregnancy
• Most energy needs of the fetus are supplied by glucose,
lactate, and amino acids from the dam
– Glucose uptake – passive
– AA uptake via active placental transport (independent of maternal
blood concentration)
– During hypoglycemia, fetus compensates by using more AA for
energy
Uterine Uptake
Nutrient Maternal Supply (g/d) Grams/d % of Maternal Supply
Glucose 1,476 666 46
Amino Acids 998 718 72
Bell, A. W. 1995. J Animal Sci 73(9):2804-2819. USDBUNON00529

12. Rapid Acceleration in Nutrient Needs
Around Calving
• Within a few days of calving, mammary requirements
increase as compared to uterine demands just before
calving:
– Glucose 2.7 X pregnant uterus
– Amino acids 2.0 X pregnant uterus
– Fatty acids 4.5 X pregnant uterus
– Total “Energy” ~3 X pregnant uterus
• Despite these needs, feed intake is low, resulting in…
– Negative energy balance: -10 to -15 Mcal/d (or more)
– Negative protein balance: - 500 to -600 g/d (or more)
Bell, A. W. 1995. J Animal Sci 73(9):2804-2819. USDBUNON00529

13. How Does the Modern Dairy Cow Do It?
• Two major ways:
– Alters glucose metabolism
Mediated in
• Glucose sparing
part by
• Increased gluconeogenesis from amino acids somatotropin
– Mobilizes body tissues (fat and protein) (growth
• Leads to increased NEFA’s hormone)
• Liver is crucial in these adaptations
Day relative to calving
-21 11 22
Liver weight (lbs) ~ 19 ~ 19 ~ 21
Oxygen uptake 35 76 80
(moles/d)
Adapted from: Reynolds et al, 2003. J Dairy Sci 86(4):1201-1217. USDBUNON00529

14. Adaptations at Parturition and Onset of Lactation1,2
Adipose Tissue Rumen
lipolysis size
de novo fat synthesis absorptive capacity
uptake of preformed fatty acids rate of nutrient absorption
re-esterification of fatty acids
Mammary gland
# secretory cells
nutrient use
Liver
supply of blood
size
rate of gluconeogenesis
protein synthesis Muscle
ketogenesis glucose utilization
protein synthesis
protein degradation
1Bauman, D. E. and W. B. Currie. 1980. J Dairy Sci 63(9):1514-1529.
2Ingvartsen,
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K. L. and J. B. Andersen. 2000. J Dairy Sci 83(7):1573-1597.

15. What Can We Do in the Far Dry Group to
Better Manage Feed Intake and Improve
Postpartum Performance?
• Control the energy intake in far dry cows
• Manage environment to minimize stress
and weight loss during dry period
• Provide adequate and comfortable
resting access
• Beware long days dry
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16. Close-Up Cows: a Critical Group to
Manage Properly
• Can have large drops in feed intake
• More sensitive to stressors
• Must deal with decline in immune function
• Must deal with calcium challenges
• Typically, this is when negative energy
balance starts
– Making colostrum and supporting the fetus
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17. Close-Up Cows (and Fresh Cows)
are Particularly Sensitive to Stress
• Stress issues:
– Overcrowding
– Pen changes
– Mixing heifers and cows
– Poor housing
• Inability to rest
• Mud
• Heat
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18. Effect of Prepartum Stocking Density on
Production
• 2001 field trial to evaluate dry cow feed additive
– 1st calf heifers grouped with older cows (pre- and post-
fresh)
• Two-row pens with lockups, pre and post-fresh
• Pre-fresh stall stocking density ranged from 62 to
138% of stalls
• No stall overstocking in post-fresh pens
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G.R. Oetzel, unpublished work, 2003

19. Pre-fresh Stocking Density and
90
Post-fresh Milk Yield
80
70
Milk, lbs/day
60 132 1st lactation cows modeled
50
1.6 lb/d lost for each 10% increase in pre-
40
fresh stocking density
P<.01 for effect of
presd on milk yield
30
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83
Days in Milk
80% presd 100% presd 120% presd
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G.R. Oetzel, unpublished work, 2003

20. Prepartum Stocking Density (freestalls)
1st Test Milk (Lact 2+)
100
95
1st Test (Lbs Milk)
90
85
80
75
70
70%
80%
90%
100%
110%
120%
130%
140%
150%
160%
170%
180%
190%
200%
Stocking Density (at Calving)
Overton and Sischo, unpublished results, 2004 USDBUNON00529

21. Typical Ration Guidelines1
Far Dry High Forage Close-Up
Crude Protein 12.5-13% 14 – 15.5%
NEL 0.58-0.62 Mcal/lb 0.62-0.65 Mcal/lb
MCal 14-15 MCal NEL 15-17 MCal NEL
Metabolizable Protein 900 – 1000 g 1100 - 1200 g
NFC 24 - 28% 28 - 32%
Starch 12 - 16% 16 - 19%
NDF 50% 42 - 45%
Vit A 80,000 IU 100,000 IU
Vit E 1000 – 1200 IU 2000-3000 IU
DMI ~ 30 lbs 24 – 28 lbs
1Nutrition
recommendations adapted in part from Tom Overton, presentation at 2012 U. Minn. NCE- USDBUNON00529
DVM, St. Peter, Minn)

22. Transitional Management Key # 2:
Reduce Risk and Impact of Dystocia
• Negative effects on:
– Calves
• More likely to die at birth
• More likely to get sick before weaning
• Higher death rate prior to weaning
– Cow performance
• Greater risk of premature culling, especially in first lactation
• Reduced milk production
• Greater risk of metritis
• Reduced reproductive performance
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23. Reducing the Effects of Dystocia
• Feed and manage heifers to calve at 22-24 months with
adequate frame size but not fat
– Need to measure heights AND weights periodically to check
program
– Breed based on frame size, not age
• Provide clean, dry stress-free area for calving
• Provide proper calving assistance training to employees
• Improve reproductive efficiency in milking cows to reduce #
of fat cows in herd
– Long days in milk (poor repro) and low milk increase risk of high
BCS
• Use calving ease sires and reduce/avoid use of natural
service bulls in heifer pens
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24. Milk Fever
• Subclinical hypocalcemia affects many cows
• Clinical hypocalcemia normally < 5-6%
• Increased risk for
– Older cows (3+ parity)
– Jerseys
– High producing cows
• Associated with increased risk of
– Ketosis, LDA, impaired reproductive performance
Erb, H. N. and Y. T. Grohn. 1988. J Dairy Sci 71(9):2557-2571. USDBUNON00529

25. HYPOCALCEMIA (clinical or subclinical)
Smooth muscle function
Rumen, digestive tract motility Immune Uterine motility
function
RP Involution
DA Feed
intake
Body reserve mobilization
EB
Metritis
Ketosis
MILK YIELD FERTILITY
Hypocalcemia, feed intake, and immune function are interrelated – All are critical
for early lactation production and health
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26. Management of Milk Fever
(clinical and subclinical hypocalcemia)
Management of Dry Cow Nutrition
• Traditional approach: • DCAD approach
– Restrict Ca intake prepartum – Balance cations (Na and
– < 40 g/d K) and anions (Cl and S)
– Actually needs to be < 20 g/d – Goal:
• Less than the 30 g/ day that is • Negative DCAD
needed by the cow • Slight metabolic acidosis
– Results in activation of PTH, – Result: increased tissue
osteoclasts and renal tubular responsiveness to PTH
absorption
• System is ready for
increased demand at
calving
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27. Transitional Management Key # 4:
Minimize Impact of Infectious Disease
• Two key infectious diseases that impact fresh cows:
– Mastitis
– Metritis
• Means to lower risk of infection:
– Good immune function PRE- and POST-Partum
– Maintain adequate calcium balance
– Minimize impact of environment
– Minimize risk/ impact of dystocia
– Minimize risk of metabolic diseases
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28. Immunity
Specific organs, tissues, cells, and molecules work
together to form the immune system and help protect the
cow from infectious disease.
To help understand such a complex system, immunologists
will commonly group the functions of the immune system
into two categories
1. Innate immunity, also known as native immunity
2. Acquired immunity, also known as adaptive immunity
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29. The Big Picture
• The defense against infective microbes works as a series of layers
of increasing levels of protection. When invading microbes overtake
the first layer, the next layer attempts to stop them. This defense is
possible by
– Early reactions of the innate immune system (minutes to hours)
– Later events of the acquired immune system (hours to days)
• Both systems work in a
coordinated fashion and
overlap to a certain degree
Tizard IR. Veterinary Immunology - An Introduction. 8th ed. St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier; 2009. USDBUNON00529

30. The Innate Immune Response
Physical Barriers
• The innate immune system
represents the first line of active
defense against invading
pathogens
Inflammatory Response
• The non-specific or innate
immune system consists of three
major systems
1. Physical barriers
2. Inflammatory responses
Phagocytic Response1
3. Phagocytic response
1(http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio225/chap16/lecture3.htm , last accessed on 2/7/13) USDBUNON00529

31. Cells of the Innate Immune System
• Neutrophils • Monocytes/Macrophages
• Neutrophils (a type of granulocyte) are • Monocytes are only found in the
the first of the circulating defense cells blood. When they enter the
tissue they are called
to respond and migrate to sites of
macrophages. Macrophages aid
infection. Neutrophils bind to and in phagocytosis of foreign cells
phagocytose invading microorganisms.
They are considered the key
phagocytic cell of the innate immune
system
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32. Acquired Immune Response
• The acquired immune system has to recognize and
destroy foreign invaders and then retain their memory so
that if the animal encounters the same organism again,
the immune system will respond more quickly and
effectively
• Developing acquired immune response is a complex
interaction between the animal and pathogen and will be
dependent upon the dose and strength of the pathogen
as well as the duration of exposure
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33. Characteristics of the Acquired
Immune System
• Slower response than the innate immune system
• Requires the presence of specific antigens
• Acquires the ability to produce specific antibodies to antigens
• Memory response which is amplified by repeated exposure
• Two major components of the Acquired Immune System
1. Humoral immunity (antibodies)
2. Cell mediated immunity
• Acquired immunity is the basis behind all vaccination
strategies
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34. Lymphocytes
• The key white blood cell of the acquired immune response is
the lymphocyte
• Lymphocytes are the cells that specifically recognize and
respond to foreign antigens
• Lymphocytes circulate between the blood stream and the
lymphatic system, unlike other white blood cells that once
they enter the tissue they stay there
• There are two major subpopulations of lymphocytes that differ
in how they recognize antigens and in their functions
– B Lymphocyte
– T Lymphocyte
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35. Periparturient Immune Suppression
• Endocrine changes and physiologic stress of the transition
period lead to compromised (i.e. suppressed) immune
function.1 While this compromise (i.e. suppression) is
multifactorial, it is related to:
– Energy balance
– Ketones and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA)
– Calcium metabolism
– Glucocorticoids
• Adequate nutrition, a clean environment, and management
decisions help manage immune function in the periparturient
period.
1. Goff J 2008. Transition Cow Immune Function and Interaction with Metabolic Diseases
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36. Immune Dysfunction as a Contributing
Cause of Retained Placenta
• Theory proposed by Gunnink1-3
– When blood supply to placenta ceases, it becomes a
“foreign body”
– Maternal immune system must recognize and attack
– Cotyledons from RP cows had less leukocyte
chemoattractant than cotyledons from normal cows
– Reduced chemotaxis in neutrophils from RP cows
• Follow-up work by Kimura et al4
– Neutrophils from RP cows had lower function pre-calving
1Gunnink JW. Vet Q. Apr 1984;6(2):49-51.; 2 Gunnink JW. Vet Q. Apr 1984;6(2):52-54.; 3Gunnink JW. Vet Q. Apr 1984;6(2):55-57. USDBUNON00529
4Kimura et al, 2002. J Dairy Sci 85:544-550

37. Periparturient Energy Metabolism, Immune
Function and Disease
Severe or Poor Response to Hypocalcemia
Negative Energy Balance (clinical or
(i.e., low DMI) subclinical)
Reduced Function of Neutrophils
And/or Lymphocytes
Increased Disease Susceptibility
Mastitis Retained Uterine Infections
• Incidence Placenta • Endometritis
• Severity • Chronic infections?
• Duration
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38. Transitional Management Key # 5:
Promote Rapid Return to Positive Energy
Balance (Maximize Fresh Cow Feed Intake)
• Goal: Reduce stressors holding
– Rapid rise in feed intake cows back!
A. Reduce the impact of fresh
• Result: cow disease
– Less risk of ketosis problems – Ketosis, metritis, MF
– Higher first test B. Improve cow comfort
– Higher peak milk
C. Provide consistent high
– Less weight loss
quality feed
– Reduced time to first ovulation
D. Watch stocking density
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39. Time Management (Cow’s Perspective)
Milking time 2-3 hrs (3)
Eating/ Drinking 5-6 hrs (5)
Socialization/ walking 2-3 hrs (2)
Standing in stalls 1-2 hrs (1)
Lying 12-14 hrs (13)
24
What about Management???
Fresh Cow Monitoring
Breeding Milking
TAI Eating
etc. Socializing
Standing
Lying
Grant, R. J. 2009. Pages 7-17 in Proc. Western Dairy Management Conference, Reno, NV. USDBUNON00529

40. Time Mis-Management (Cow’s Perspective)
Milking time 2-3 hrs (5)
Eating/Drinking 5-6 hrs (4)
Socialization/Walking 2-3 hrs (2)
Standing in stalls 1-2 hrs (1)
Forced lockup < 1 hr (2)
Lying 12-14 hrs (10)
24
• Consider:
– -2 or -8 lb milk loss Milking
– Extra 0.25 to 0.75 Eating
BCS loss over 100 days Socializing
Standing
Lying
Grant, R. J. 2009. Pages 7-17 in Proc. Western Dairy Management Conference, Reno, NV. USDBUNON00529

41. Dry Matter Intake is the Driver Behind
Early Cyclicity, NOT Milk Production
DMI (lbs) at DMI (lbs) Body wt loss
Milk (lbs/d)
-7 days early lact (30 DIM)
Early Ov 33 45 -90 108
Late Ov 26 40 -150 109
Butler 2006, Penn State Dairy Cattle Nutrition Workshop, 51-60. USDBUNON00529

42. *Five Transition Management Keys*
1. Minimize DMI depression prepartum
– Must meet MP and ME needs to the cow, calf and colostrum
– Goal is to minimize risk of metabolic disease
2. Minimize risk and effects of dystocia
3. Minimize risk and effects of hypocalcemia/
hypomagnesemia
4. Minimize the impact of mastitis and metritis
– Optimize immunocompetence
5. Promote rapid return to positive energy balance
(Maximize rise in feed intake after calving)
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43. Thanks For Your Attention!
Michael Overton, DVM, MPVM
(706) 248-4664
moverton@elanco.com
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