Benign vulvar lesions

Benign Vulvar Lesions
Author: Giuseppe Micali, MD; Chief Editor: Michel E Rivlin, MD more...

Updated: Sep 29, 2011

Overview
In the last few years, interest in vulvar disease has greatly increased. However, the relevant material has been
scattered throughout the literature of various specialties, including dermatology, genitourinary medicine,
gynecology, and pathology. The spectrum of involved specialties reflects the complexity of vulvar diseases and the
necessity of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of the vulva.[1] In response to the various approaches of the
specialists faced with treating vulvar disease, the World Health Organization, the International Society for the
Study of Vulvar Disease, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, and the International Society
of Gynecological Pathologists have made an effort to standardize the nomenclature.

Some general anatomic, embryologic, and histologic findings of the vulva merit review. The vulva is the part of the
female genital tract located between the genitocrural folds laterally, the mons pubis anteriorly, and the anus
posteriorly. Embryologically, it is the result of the junction of the cloacal endoderm, urogenital ectoderm, and
paramesonephric mesodermal layers. This hollow structure contains the labia majora, labia minora, clitoris,
vestibule, urinary meatus, vaginal orifice, hymen, Bartholin glands, and Skene ducts. Different epithelia, from
keratinized squamous epithelium to squamous mucosa, cover the vulva. The labia minora are rich with sebaceous
glands but have few sweat glands and no hair follicles. The epithelium of the vestibule is neither pigmented nor
keratinized and contains eccrine glands.

Benign vulvar disorders are a significant issue for patients. These disorders include vulvar atrophy, benign tumors,
hamartomas and cysts, infectious disorders, and nonneoplastic epithelial disorders.[2] Infectious disorders include
diseases caused by known transmissible agents, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. They may first be
seen by physicians of various specialties, including dermatologists and gynecologists, and often require a
multidisciplinary approach.

Developmental abnormalities of vulva are generally rare. Vulvar atrophy may be related to advanced age or other
disorders, but these abnormalities often represent an almost physiological finding in the elderly.

Benign tumors of the vulva are relatively uncommon and may show nonspecific clinical features. Therefore, a
biopsy is often needed to exclude a malignant neoplasm and to indicate proper treatment. Vascular neoplasms
may also occur in the vulva and are similar to such lesions found elsewhere.

Nonneoplastic epithelial disorders include several inflammatory, ulcerative, and blistering disorders, as well as
pigmentary changes involving the vulvar region.

Inflammatory diseases

Lichen sclerosus
Squamous cell hyperplasia (with and without atypia)
Lichen simplex chronicus (localized neurodermatitis)
Primary irritant dermatitis
Intertrigo
Allergic contact dermatitis
Fixed drug eruption
Atopic dermatitis
Seborrheic dermatitis
Psoriasis
Reiter disease
Lichen planus
Lupus erythematosus

Darier disease
Aphthosis and Behçet disease
Pyoderma gangrenosum
Crohn disease
Hidradenitis suppurativa
Fox-Fordyce disease
Plasma cell vulvitis
Vulvar vestibulitis

Blistering diseases

Familial benign chronic pemphigus (Hailey-Hailey disease)
Bullous pemphigoid
Cicatricial pemphigoid
Pemphigus vulgaris
Erythema multiforme
Epidermolysis bullosa

Pigmentary changes

Acanthosis nigricans
Lentigo, lentiginosis, and benign vulvar melanosis
Melanocytic nevus
Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation
Postinflammatory hypopigmentation
Vitiligo

Benign tumors, hamartomas, and cysts

Mucous cysts
Bartholin and Skene duct cysts
Epidermal inclusion cyst
Seborrheic keratosis
Acrochordon (fibroepithelial polyp)
Fibroma, fibromyoma, and dermatofibroma
Lipoma
Hidradenoma
Syringoma
Hemangioma
Lymphangioma
Angiokeratoma
Pyogenic granuloma
Endometriosis
Heterotopic sebaceous glands and sebaceous gland hyperplasia
Papillomatosis (papillary vulvar hirsutism)

Congenital malformations

Ambiguous external genitalia
Congenital labial hypertrophy
Labial adhesions

Atrophy of the vulva

Etiology and Pathophysiology
Nonneoplastic epithelial disorders are discussed below.

Lichen sclerosus

The etiology of this condition is unknown.[3] A higher prevalence of the disease in postmenopausal women

suggests hormonal factors, but this has not been confirmed.[4, 5] A 2008 study demonstrated that oral
contraceptives with antiandrogenic properties might trigger the early onset of lichen sclerosus in
susceptible young women.[6]
Investigative studies aimed toward identifying an infection-causing agent (eg, spirochetes, viruses) have
yielded inconclusive results.
Lichen sclerosus has been weakly linked to autoimmune diseases and genetic factors. Approximately 21%
of patients have an autoimmune disease, most commonly a thyroid disorder. Familial occurrence is also
well recognized. Forty-four percent of patients have one or more autoantibodies, and 22% percent have a
positive family history.[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
The role of local factors (eg, trauma, friction, chronic infection, and irritation) is well recognized, and
recurrence near vulvectomy scars has been observed.

Squamous cell hyperplasia

Repetitive scratching or rubbing from irritants can result in squamous cell hyperplasia. Because this
condition is often thought to be equivalent to lichen simplex chronicus, some diagnostic confusion exists.
Ambiguous and even inexplicable terms, such as atypical epithelial hyperplasia (dysplasia), vulvar
dystrophy, vulvar atypia, atrophic dystrophy, mixed dystrophy, and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia, inhibit
effective communication between clinicians and pathologists. These terms have different meanings to
dermatologists, pathologists, and gynecologists, further complicating the problem.


Lichen simplex chronicus of the vulva is the end stage of the itch-scratch-itch cycle. The initial stimulus to
itch may be underlying seborrheic dermatitis, intertrigo, tinea, or psoriasis; however, in most cases, the
underlying cause is not evident and may have been transient vulvitis or vaginal discharge.[10]
Any itching disease of the vulva may become secondarily lichenified.


In the absence of any immune reactivity, this condition is a common cause of vulvar burning and pruritus
due to irritation.
Chemical agents that remove surface lipids, denature epidermal keratins, or damage cell membranes with a
direct cytotoxic effect on cells may cause irritation.
Common irritants include perfumed soaps and detergents, fabric softeners, feminine hygiene products (eg,
tampons, pads, diapers, wipes, deodorant sprays), bubble baths, bath oils, colored or scented toilet paper,
physically abrasive contactants (eg, face cloths, sponges), and body secretions (eg, urine, semen).
Obsessive cleaning of the vulvar area may also cause serious irritation.
Irritation may eventually arise as a result of friction from tight clothing, trapping of moisture due to lack of
ventilation (eg, from wearing synthetic fabrics), or activities such as bicycling and horseback riding.

Intertrigo: This condition is a nonspecific inflammatory eruption of skin folds that can be precipitated by sweating,
obesity, and occlusion.


Vulvar allergic dermatitis may occur as a result of a delayed, cell-mediated, type IV hypersensitivity
reaction. An inflammatory disorder originating from local contact with an agent to which the patient has
previously been sensitized, vulvar allergic dermatitis develops 12-48 hours after exposure. Less commonly,
vulvar pruritus may coincide with more generalized allergic symptoms. Known allergens include topical
medications and various chemicals in products such as perfumes, preservatives, and latex. Nickel
sensitivity from snaps or zippers in denim jeans or undergarments may also occur. [11, 12, 13]
Topical allergens in vulvar allergic dermatitis include the following:
Antibiotics - Neomycin, clindamycin, tetracycline, sulfonamides, nifuratel
Anesthetics - Benzocaine, lidocaine, prilocaine, pramoxine
Antihistamines - Promethazine, diphenylenediamine hydrochloride, p- phenylenediamine,
ethylenediamine dihydrochloride
Antiseptics - Hexachlorophene
Clothing dyes
Moisturizers - Lanolin
Nail polish
Nickel

Plants - Poison ivy
Preservatives - Paraben, imidazolidinyl urea
Perfumes - Balsam of Peru
Rubber - Gloves, condoms, diaphragms

Fixed drug eruption

A fixed drug eruption is a cell-mediated allergic drug reaction typically recurring in the same site upon
reexposure.
Common causative agents include oral drugs such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents,
acetaminophen, sulfonamides, tetracycline, and barbiturates. Fluconazole as a possible causative agent
has also been recently reported.[14]

Atopic dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis usually occurs in patients with a personal or family history of asthma, hay fever, childhood
eczema, or dry skin and is related to a cutaneous hypersensitivity associated with defective cell-mediated
immunity and immunoglobulin E overproduction.[15]
Although airborne and food allergens may generally play a role, because of their skin hypersensitivity,
atopic individuals sometimes show vulvar symptoms as a result of irritation by personal hygiene products
(eg, soaps, cleansers, lotions, perfumes, sanitary napkins).


The cause of seborrheic dermatitis is unknown. Seborrhea is evidently a substantial predisposing factor
because lesions occur in areas of the skin where sebaceous glands are most active, such as the face,
scalp, body folds, and, less commonly, the genitalia.
Seborrheic dermatitis is commonly observed in neonates during the early months of life (as a result of
sebaceous gland activation by maternal androgens) or after puberty.
An association with Pityrosporum yeasts has been noted.
Neurological factors have also been thought to play a role; emotional stress, Parkinson disease, nerve
injury, and syringomyelia have been related to onset or worsening of the disease.
Seasonal factors, zinc deficiency, and HIV infection have been linked to this disorder.

Psoriasis

This common condition is a hereditary disorder of the skin that affects approximately 2% of the population
in the Western world. The characteristic silver-white scales on erythematous plaques are caused by rapid
cell turnover and primarily occur in sites of repetitive trauma, such as the scalp, elbows, forearms, knees,
hands, and feet.
Rarely, vulvar involvement occurs and is sometimes triggered or worsened by local factors such as irritation
from scratching, irritant soaps, bacterial or yeast superinfections, or increases in heat and humidity
secondary to the use of tight synthetic clothing and sanitary napkins.

Reiter disease

This disease is a sterile oligoarthritis typically associated with conjunctivitis and with a distant infection (eg,
Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, Shigella, Salmonella), causing nongonococcal urethritis
or enteritis. Additional findings include palmoplantar keratoderma, circinate balanitis, and, less frequently,
vulvar involvement.
Eighty percent of Reiter disease patients are HLA-B27 positive. However, the exact role of this major
histocompatibility class I antigen in the development of this disease remains unclear.

Lichen planus

Lichen planus can be an acute or chronic dermatosis affecting the skin, mucous membranes, or both. Its
cause is unknown, but evidence suggests that it is an immunologically mediated disorder. [9] Some drugs
have been found to induce lichen planus type eruptions.[16]
Vulvar lesions may be more common than generally considered; a report found genital involvement in 51%
of women with cutaneous disease.[17]

Lupus erythematosus

Lupus erythematosus is an idiopathic autoimmune disorder that can affect many organ systems. According

to the degree of systemic involvement, the disease is classified into systemic, subacute, chronic, or
discoid forms.
Genital involvement is uncommon, and vulvar manifestations have seldom been described. In one study,
vulvar lesions were found in 2 (5%) of 42 women affected by the chronic form.

Darier disease

Darier disease is a heritable disorder of keratinization transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait. Altered
keratinization is a result of the disruption of desmosomal proteins with consequent tonofilament detachment
and acantholysis because of the mutation of a gene located on band 12q23-24.1.[18]
Genital involvement is frequent and is precipitated by heat, humidity, sweat, and friction.

Aphthosis

Aphthosis is a condition of unknown etiology characterized by single or multiple painful canker sores on the
oral and genital mucosa. Synonyms include aphthous ulcers, canker sores (on the vulva), Lipschütz ulcers,
and ulcus vulvae acutum.[19]
The condition may be associated with autoimmune disease. Premenstrual exacerbations are common.

Behçet disease

Behçet disease is a chronic multisystemic inflammatory disorder characterized by oral and genital
aphthous ulcers and ocular involvement. [20]
Its etiology is unknown but probably involves altered immunity in genetically predisposed subjects because
an association with the expression of some HLAs (B51, DR5, and DQw3) and a racial predilection for
individuals of Asian or Middle Eastern descent have been shown.[21]


The etiology of this disease is still unknown, although evidence of its etiologic and pathogenic background
may be found in its frequent association with systemic autoimmune diseases (eg, Crohn disease, arthritis,
monoclonal gammopathy).
Moreover, evidence suggests that altered immunity occurs in some patients with pyoderma gangrenosum.
Vulvar involvement occurs, albeit rarely, with approximately 8 cases reported in the literature.[22]

Crohn disease

Crohn disease is a chronic granulomatous inflammatory bowel disease that may primarily or secondarily
involve the vulvar (2%) and inguinal regions. [23]
Proposed causes include an unrecognized infectious agent or a disturbed immunologic reaction to an
intestinal organism in a genetically predisposed individual.
Findings from the largest case series of vulvar Crohn disease suggest that patients with Crohn disease
should have regular gynecologic checkups. [24]


Hidradenitis suppurativa is a chronic suppurative inflammatory disorder of the apocrine glands resulting as
with acne vulgaris and acne mechanica from acute and chronic follicular occlusion.
Several factors, including onset at puberty, female predilection (female-to-male ratio, 3:1), typical flares with
menstruation, spontaneous regression at menopause, and occasional association with the use of an oral
estroprogestinic, suggest a role for hormonal factors. [25]
Familial cases and racial predilection (ie, more common in blacks) indicate that genetic factors may also
play a role.
Obesity, profuse sweating, and overheating are other precipitating factors.

Fox-Fordyce disease

Fox-Fordyce disease is an uncommon condition of the axillary and anogenital regions related to apocrine
sweat duct occlusion and is typically exacerbated by factors that stimulate apocrine secretion.[26]
Its cause is unknown. Improvement is observed at menopause, with pregnancy, or following oral
contraceptive intake.[27]

Plasma cell vulvitis: This condition, corresponding to Zoon plasma cell balanitis, has also been reported on the

vulva. The etiology is unknown.

Vulvar vestibulitis

The pathogenesis of vulvar vestibulitis is obscure. Studies suggesting a relative inability to down-regulate
proinflammatory interleukin-1 beta activity by interleukin-1 receptors need further confirmation.[28]
Sexual activity, nulligravidity, bacterial infection, or candidal infections seem to be unlikely factors. [29, 30]
Association with sensitization to seminal fluid[31] or with interstitial cystitis may occasionally be found.[32]
Localized pain of vulvar vestibulitis may results from regionally elevated cytokines produced by vulvar
vestibule-specific fibroblasts. [33]
Altered density of nerve endings [34] and estrogen receptors has been demonstrated. [33, 35, 36]
A 2007 study demonstrated that vulvar vestibulitis is more frequent in patients who use oral contraceptives
with low-dose estrogen than those who use oral contraceptive with high-dose estrogen.[37] The use of oral
contraceptives might be a contributing factor by increasing the sensitivity of the vestibular mucosa.[38]

Blistering diseases

Hailey-Hailey disease is a rare autosomal dominant acantholytic disorder due to a mutation on band 3q21-
q24 and is characterized from late adolescence or adulthood by recurrent eruptions of vesicles and blisters
typically located on the neck, axillae, and groin.
Intrinsic desmosomal fragility may only become evident when trigger factors (eg, friction, infections,
irritants, increased temperature and humidity, acute UV exposure) precipitate acantholysis. Because most
of these conditions frequently occur in the anogenital area, vulvar problems may be common.

Bullous pemphigoid

Bullous pemphigoid is a blistering autoimmune disorder that usually affects elderly patients.
The disorder is caused by antibodies binding 2 different antigens, BPAg1 (230 kd) and BPAg2 (a
hemidesmosomal antigen of 180 kd now thought to be collagen XVII), located in the basement membrane of
the skin.[39]
Mucosal lesions of the vulva occur less frequently and are less severe than other blistering disorders. [40]
A juvenile localized subtype of immunoglobulin G (IgG) mediated bullous pemphigoid occurring in children
in the first year of life and characterized by a self-limited nonscarring bullous pemphigoid like process
involving only the vulva has been described.[41]


Cicatricial pemphigoid is an autoimmune condition with autoantibodies directed against collagen XVII and
laminin-5 located in the basement membrane zone. Resulting inflammation and subepidermal splitting
leads to typical mucosal scarring.
Genital involvement is common and reportedly occurs in at least 50% of patients.

Pemphigus vulgaris

This autoimmune blistering disorder affecting the skin and mucosa is due to circulating autoantibodies
directed toward desmoglein III (130 kd), a desmosomal cadherin that mediates cell-to-cell adhesion in the
epidermis.
The vulva is affected in approximately 10% of cases.
Contact pemphigus induced by topical imiquimod may occur.[42]

Erythema multiforme (minor/major)

Erythema multiforme is a cutaneous hypersensitivity reaction that may be triggered by herpesvirus infection
or drug intake. Sulfonamides, beta-lactam antibiotics, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are the
offending agents in most patients.
Vulvar involvement is frequently observed in the more severe forms of the disease, along with lesions
located on other mucosal (eg, eye, mouth, throat) and skin sites.


This term indicates a group of congenital disorders characterized by skin fragility due to an inherited defect

in the epidermal, junctional, or dermal components underlying the physiological mechanical properties of
the skin.
Mucous membranes, including those of the genitalia, may be involved.

Pigmentary changes

Acanthosis nigricans is a diffuse pigmentary change typically observed in intertriginous areas and skin
folds. It may be hereditary, drug induced, or associated with obesity or endocrine diseases.[43]
It sometimes represents a paraneoplastic syndrome, revealing associated malignant epithelial tumors or
lymphoproliferative disorders.


These conditions, characterized by benign epidermal melanocytic hyperplasia, are the most common
pigmented lesions reported to occur in the vulva.[44]
Hyperpigmented macules of less than 4 mm in diameter define lentigo, whereas larger macules are usually
vulvar melanosis.
Lentiginosis is characterized by multiple spots of hyperpigmentation and may sometimes be an expression
of a genetic disorder such as Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, LEOPARD syndrome (ie, lentigines,
electrocardiographic [conduction abnormalities], ocular [hypertelorism], pulmonary [stenosis], abnormal
[genitalia], retardation [of growth], and deafness syndrome), or somatic mosaicism.

Melanocytic nevus

Vulvar nevi are fairly common (0.1% of nevi have this location).
The etiology of nevi at other skin sites is still a matter of debate. Nevus cells deriving from the neural crest
migrate into the skin during embryogenesis and collect in the basal cell layer of the epidermis, where they
proliferate in small nests.

Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation: This condition is due to melanin deposition in the dermis following a previous
inflammatory process caused by drug intake (end stage of a fixed drug eruption) or other dermatological disorders
localized to the vulva (eg, lichen planus, discoid lupus erythematosus, psoriasis).

Postinflammatory hypopigmentation: This condition is due to temporary or permanent melanocyte damage of
different causes, including skin injury with scar formation and chronic inflammatory skin diseases (eg, lichen
sclerosus, discoid lupus erythematosus).

Vitiligo: This condition is an acquired loss of pigmentation secondary to possible immunologically mediated
melanocyte damage. Genital involvement is common.

Mucous cysts

These are dysontogenetic cysts arising from the minor vestibular glands or from mesonephric duct
remnants.
A cyst of the canal of Nuck (processus vaginalis peritonei) that fills with peritoneal fluid may also occur.

Bartholin cyst and Skene duct cyst: These cysts develop as a result of ductal occlusion.[45, 46]

Epidermal inclusion cyst: This common cystic lesion arises from obstruction of a sebaceous gland.

Seborrheic keratosis: The etiology of this common pigmented epithelial proliferation is unknown, although it may
be inherited.

Acrochordon: A fibroepithelial polyp (acrochordon) is a skin tag commonly observed in areas subject to irritation.

Fibroma, fibromyoma, and dermatofibroma: Fibromas and related fibromyomas are the most common benign solid
vulvar tumors. Their cause is unknown.

Lipoma: Lipomas, or fatty tumors, are the second most common solid tumors found in the vulvar area. The
etiologies of other benign connective tumors in this area are unknown.

Hidradenoma: Hidradenomas are now considered benign tumors arising from anogenital mammary-like glands. [47]

Syringoma: Syringomas are common benign adnexal tumors of eccrine origin. They may rarely be familiar.
Because their onset and aggravation may be related with puberty, menstruation, or pregnancy, a hormonal
influence has been suggested, but results of immunostaining for estrogen and progesterone receptors are
controversial.[48, 49, 50, 51]

Hemangioma: Hemangiomas are benign tumors of the vascular endothelium that occur in infants. They enlarge by
active proliferation of endothelial cells due to still unknown factors.

Lymphangioma: Lymphangiomas are benign tumors of the lymphatic vessels that only rarely occur on the vulva.
They may be congenital or acquired, [52] and in such cases they may represent a complication of radiation
therapy. [53]

Angiokeratoma: Angiokeratomas of Fordyce are small benign vascular proliferations of unknown cause. They are
the result of dilation of ectatic subdermal vessels and congested capillaries. [54] They are common on hair-bearing
skin of the external genitalia (eg, vulva, scrotum). The clitoris is an extremely rare location.[54] Association with
radiotherapy has sometimes been reported.[55] Recently, the first case of angiokeratoma of the vulva following
chronic HPV infection was reported.[56]

Pyogenic granuloma: This type of granuloma is a vascular proliferation of unknown cause; occasionally, pyogenic
granulomas are associated with a history of trauma.

Endometriosis

Endometriosis is an uncommon benign neoplasm in the vulva produced by implantation of endometrial
fragments, often following trauma or surgical procedures (eg, endometrial curettage, cesarean delivery).[57]
Chocolate cysts of this benign metastasizing neoplasm may also be found near the umbilicus.


Heterotopic sebaceous glands are normal variants and represent the equivalents of Fordyce spots on the
oral mucosa.
Sebaceous gland hyperplasia is a benign hamartomatous condition commonly observed on the face in
elderly patients, but it has also been reported on the vulva.[58]

Papillomatosis (papillary vulvar hirsutism): Similar to pearly penile papules occurring over the corona and penile
sulcus, these papillary growths of vestibular mucosa are normal variants of female anatomy. Their origin is
unknown. No association with human papillomavirus infection has been detected so far.


Sexual ambiguity is a term used to describe situations in which the external genital organs are not clearly
female or male at birth. Abnormalities of the external genitalia occur in 1 in 4500 births.[59] The 3 main
etiologic categories include (1) female pseudohermaphroditism, accounting for 80% of ambiguous genitalia;
(2) male pseudohermaphroditism, occurring in approximately 15% of cases; and (3) disorders of
differentiation.
The preponderance of female pseudohermaphroditism is due to a recessive congenital enzymatic defect of
adrenal steroid biosynthesis (most commonly, 21-hydroxylase deficiency), resulting in androgen
overproduction that virilizes the external genitalia of a female 46,XX fetus with normal ovaries. Although rare,
maternal factors can also virilize a female fetus.
In male pseudohermaphroditism, healthy 46,XY infants have a partial or complete block in the
masculinization process during development as a result of a lack of gonadotropin, an enzyme defect in
testosterone biosynthesis, or a defect in androgen-dependent target tissue response.
Differentiation disorders arise from an abnormality of the number or structure of the X and Y chromosomes
or of a male-specific transplant antigen that interacts with the Y chromosome to induce testicular
differentiation.


Noted at puberty, hypertrophy of the labia minora is not an uncommon developmental anomaly. The

condition is an anatomic variant rather than a malformation.
Rarely, it occurs because of lymphostasis or chronic physical pulling on the labia.

Labial adhesions

These adhesions result from fusion of the labia minora and occur in 1.4% of prepubertal girls. The etiology
is unknown.
Contributing factors include local irritation, poor hygiene, and lack of estrogen, resulting in a mild
inflammatory reaction.

Genital atrophy: Sometimes termed senile atrophy, genital atrophy is quite common in postmenopausal women
and is a physiological condition related to aging and reduction of sexual hormones levels.

Clinical History and Physical Findings

Lichen sclerosus

This is commonly characterized by whitish lesions of the vulva. It is asymptomatic, but intractable pruritus
can sometimes be present. Burning and pain are less likely manifestations. Clinically, the lesions are
characterized by a wrinkled ("cigarette-paper") or parchmentlike (shiny, delicate, pale) appearance of the
skin that commonly extends around the anal area in a figure-8 or keyhole configuration.[4, 5]

Benign vulvar lesions. Lichen sclerosus.

In late stages of the disease, normal architecture may be lost.[60] Additionally, atrophy and fusion of the
labia minora, constriction of the vaginal orifice (kraurosis), synechiae, ecchymoses, fissures, and
telangiectases may be noted. Squamous cell carcinoma develops in 3-6% of women affected by vulvar
lichen sclerosus, which is therefore now regarded as a preneoplastic condition.[3, 61, 62] The presence and
the duration of symptoms and the loss of vulvar architecture are not useful indicators of potential cancer
risk.


Squamous cell hyperplasia appears as ill-defined, single or scattered, asymmetrical, whitish, thickened,
and sometimes verrucous plaques that may be accompanied by excoriations or fissurations that cause
pain and soreness.
Itching is a common symptom. If hyperkeratosis is not prominent, lesions may appear as reddish plaques.
The clitoris, labia minora, and inner aspects of the labia majora are more commonly affected.
Extensive lesions may result in stenosis of the vaginal introitus.


Patients with this condition present with a hyperkeratotic, usually ill-defined, grayish, thickened, and
sometimes excoriated lesion, usually located over the labia majora and merging with normal skin.
Hyperpigmentation is common, and prominent skin markings are evident when the skin is involved. Itching
is always present and may be intense.


Typical physical findings include diffuse reddening of the involved skin with areas of excoriation. Secondary
infection may occur.
An association with regional intertrigo, especially following mechanical irritation, may be observed.

Benign vulvar lesions. Primary irritant dermatitis and associated intertrigo.

Chronic irritant dermatitis may lead to squamous cell hyperplasia.

Intertrigo

Typically, intertrigo is characterized by erythema, local edema, oozing, maceration, and fissuring of the
inguinal fold, sometimes accompanied by considerable odor. It may be associated with similar findings in
other skin folds.
The surrounding skin may show reactive postinflammatory hyperpigmentation. Soreness and itching are
common symptoms. Secondary candidosis may exacerbate intertrigo.


Physical examination often reveals dryness, scaling, excoriations, and, at times, ulceration. Itching is
usually intense.

Benign vulvar lesions. Allergic vulvitis.

The clinical pattern may be subacute, with weeping and oozing, especially when bacterial superinfection
occurs. Without treatment, allergic dermatitis can progress to squamous cell hyperplasia.

Fixed drug eruption

This condition appears as an erythematous and edematous plaque that frequently involves the genital area
and typically resolves, leaving postinflammatory hyperpigmentation.[63]
The lesions are usually single at first presentation, but following reingestion of the drug, development of new
elements may occur in addition to recurrence of the primary lesion.
The main complaint is burning, but some patients are asymptomatic or have mild pruritus.

Atopic dermatitis

This condition consists of a subacute or chronic, symmetric, and ill-defined eczematous rash, usually
involving the labia majora and, less frequently, the labia minora and inner thighs.
The eruption is characterized by mild erythema, dryness, and fine scaling. Itching and burning are common
symptoms.

Excoriation secondary to repeated scratching may cause bacterial superinfection with honey-colored
crusting and, in chronic forms, lichenification. In some patients, the itch-scratch-itch cycle may gradually
lead to development of lichen simplex chronicus.


When the vulva is involved, the labia majora and mons pubis are primarily affected.
The lesions appear as dry-to-greasy scales superimposed on red-to-yellow brownish plaques and are often
pruritic, extending to the gluteal cleft and thighs.

Benign vulvar lesions. Seborrheic dermatitis.

Psoriasis

Occasionally, psoriasis may manifest in infancy as a bright-red, glazed, and well-demarcated eruption in
the napkin area (napkin psoriasis).
In adults, vulvar psoriasis usually involves the genitocrural areas and the lateral aspects of the labia majora,
sparing the mucosa. It may range in severity from scattered, nonscaling erythematous patches to thick,
confluent erythematous plaques with silvery-white adherent scales covering all of the labia majora and the
mons pubis.

Benign vulvar lesions. Psoriasis.

Symptoms are highly variable and range from intense pruritus to minimal discomfort. Secondary changes,
such as excoriations and lichenification or oozing and crusting from bacterial and yeast colonization, may
occur.

Reiter disease

In approximately half the affected patients, cutaneous lesions occur as psoriasiform, crusting, and
sometimes pustular papules and plaques over the hands and feet. Circinate genital erosions or oral mucosa
involvement are often associated. Conjunctivitis, arthritis, and low back pain may also occur.
The disease is unusual in women; therefore, vulvar lesions are poorly described.[64] Red crusted plaques
associated with vaginal discharge, circinate erosions, or linear ulcers associated with verrucous lesions and
pustules have been observed. [65]

Lichen planus

In the vulvar area, the disease may occur in 3 patterns: papulosquamous, erosive, and hypertrophic. [66]
The papulosquamous form, occurring as part of a generalized disease, is the most common and is
characterized by flat-topped, polyhedral, violaceous, shiny, and itchy papules located on keratinized
skin of the labia and mons pubis. Delicate and whitish reticulated papules may be present on the
mucosa, but no atrophy or scarring is observed.
The erosive form involves the mucous membranes of the mouth and vulvovaginal area and may be
locally destructive, leading to atrophy and scarring.[67] (Synonyms include erosive vaginal lichen

planus, desquamative inflammatory vaginitis, vulvovaginal-gingival syndrome and ulcerative lichen
planus.[60] ) Itching is rare, but pain, burning, and irritation occur and may be responsible for
dyspareunia and dysuria. [64]
The rare hypertrophic form, clinically resembling lichen sclerosus, manifests with extensive white
scarring of the periclitoral area with variable degrees of hyperkeratosis. It may be very itchy.
Extensive vaginal involvement may result in a malodorous discharge. Large denuded areas may
become adherent, causing stenosis of the vaginal introitus and dyspareunia. Marked atrophy may
develop with time.
Malignancy is possible in long-standing and ulcerative lichen planus.

Lupus erythematosus

Vulvar manifestations may be different in each clinical subset of the disease.[68] In chronic discoid lupus
erythematosus, the skin is mostly involved (rarely, the mucous membranes). Vulvar involvement may occur
as a scarred plaque of variable size with or without central ulceration and with marked peripheral
hyperpigmentation located anywhere on the vulva or perineum.
In subacute and systemic lupus erythematosus, the patient is usually asymptomatic and a lichen planus
type reticulated pattern may sometimes be observed. Occasionally, tender, punched-out mucosal ulcers
with possible scarring occur in the vestibule or vagina.

Darier disease

Onset is usually in late childhood, with keratotic, crusted, skin-colored, yellow, or brown papules located
mainly on the neck, upper thorax, and flexural areas. These papules grow and multiply and tend to become
more widespread and verrucous with age.
The vulva is often involved. [2] As the condition becomes more pronounced, hygiene becomes progressively
difficult to maintain, and the buildup of keratotic debris causes secondary infection and a foul smell.

Aphthosis

Patients report single or multiple, sharply demarcated, punched-out, and shallow vulvar ulcers with fibrinous
bases and erythematous borders. The lesions are very painful and are sometimes accompanied by
systemic symptoms, such as fever and malaise, but they are usually self-limited, clearing spontaneously in
a few weeks.
In some cases, especially in older women, relapsing episodes akin to partial Behçet disease may occur. In
time, older patients with recurrent ulcers may develop Behçet disease or inflammatory bowel disease.

Behçet disease

This disease is a rare multisystem disorder characterized by the triad of oral ulcers, genital ulcers, and
posterior uveitis; however, almost any organ system may be involved.[20]
Oral ulcers are usually multiple and recurrent and may sometimes be extensive, showing a
pseudomembranous coating.
Vulvar ulcers, ranging in diameter from a few millimeters to 3 cm, often appear as multiple crops of well-
defined and very tender ulcers with fibrinous bases and considerable undermining.
Fistulae, with partial or complete destruction of the labia, may develop.
Other manifestations of the disease include fever, malaise, acneiform lesions or cutaneous nodules on the
skin, arthritis, synovitis, and thrombophlebitis. Associated erythema nodosum and erythema multiforme
have been reported.


This condition often appears as a deep, painful nodule or pustule that breaks down, draining a purulent
discharge and forming an irregular ulcer with distinct undermined and purplish edges. The lesion extends
peripherally as the inflammatory process spreads within the dermis. [22]
Satellite pustules may be observed, eventually coalescing and forming a multicentric ulceration.
Pain is intense, and the course of the disease is unpredictable. The lesion may heal spontaneously, remain
quiescent for months (even years), or worsen again after minimal trauma, surgery, or an inapparent
triggering cause.

Crohn disease

Vulvar involvement in Crohn disease is uncommon. [69, 70]

Cutaneous changes may occur before the onset of bowel symptoms. The area of involvement may extend
to the perineal and perianal area. Localized or generalized labial edema, with erosions and multiple painful
ulcers of variable severity, may be observed. Ulcers may be solitary, deep, and necrotic, possibly leading to
formation of fistulae.[71] Perianal and rectovaginal fistulae are common complications.[72] Malignant
degeneration has occurred in some such cases.[73]
Unilateral labial hypertrophy, coalescing pustules, and vegetating lesions mimicking anogenital warts
(pyostomatitis vegetans) have also been described. [74]


In the vulvar area, this disease primarily affects the labia majora and intercrural folds, with erythematous
acneiform papules, nodules, and cysts scattered among multiheaded comedones, but it may also involve
the mons pubis, labia minora, and clitoris.
In some cases, deep, painful subcutaneous nodules may ulcerate and ooze a purulent yellow discharge,
leading to open sinuses and extensive scarring; in other cases, nodules may coalesce, thus forming
conglobate plaques interconnected by sinus tracts. Over time, pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia may
develop. Occasionally, vulval squamous cell carcinoma has been observed arising in chronic hidradenitis
suppurativa.[75]

Fox-Fordyce disease: This itchy papular eruption of the axillary and anogenital regions appears on the vulva as
multiple, monomorphous, skin-colored or slightly hyperpigmented, dome-shaped follicular lesions, mainly involving
the mons pubis and labia majora.

Plasma cell vulvitis: This condition appears as an erythematous, well-demarcated, smooth, and shiny plaque that
may be either asymptomatic or cause mild itching, burning, or soreness.[76, 77]

Vulvar vestibulitis

This condition is characterized by severe burning and pain with vestibular touch or attempted vaginal entry.
Typically, it follows a chronic course and may show variable numbers of minute spots of vestibular
erythema, ranging in diameter from 2-7 mm. Rarely, small ulcerations are detectable.[60, 78]
The pain is enough to make intercourse uncomfortable or completely impossible.[79] Associated deep pain
from secondary vaginismus may occur. Understandably, varying degrees of sexual dysfunction may cause
depression and anxiety. [80, 81]
Frequently, orofacial pain is associated. [82]

Blistering diseases

Hailey-Hailey disease is characterized by recurrent eruptions of vesicles and blisters that easily erode and
develop crusting. Painful deep fissures may also occur. The lesions typically involve the inguinal fold and
may extend along the edge of the labia majora and on the inner aspect of the thighs.

Benign vulvar lesions. Hailey-Hailey disease.

Bacterial and fungal superinfections often occur.

Bullous pemphigoid

The course of this disease is chronic and benign. Often, a prodromal phase of fixed urticarial plaques
occurs with itching and irritation, which can be generalized.
On the vulva, blisters arising on the labia easily erode, leaving erosions that may cause variable degrees of
discomfort.


In this disorder, blisters typically develop on mucosal sites, gradually leading to the development of
disabling scarring adhesions.
Common symptoms include vulvar itching, soreness, and pain, along with the presence of mucosal
erosions and vaginal discharge.[60] Vulvar involvement may cause synechiae of the labia and/or vagina, with
consequent dyspareunia.

Pemphigus vulgaris

Erosions, either arising on the mucosa of the inner labia and vestibule or on vulvar skin cause considerable
burning and pain.

Benign vulvar lesions. Pemphigus vulgaris, mucosal involvement.

Benign vulvar lesions. Pemphigus vulgaris, vulvar skin involvement.

Long-term disease may result in vulvar scarring, vaginal scarring, or both.


Vesicular and bullous lesions with a typical iris pattern may show variable symmetrical extension according
to the severity of the disease.
In the major form, blistering of the mucous membranes is extensive and may cause the formation of
synechiae in later stages of the disease.

Benign vulvar lesions. Erythema multif orme major, vulvar involvement.

Epidermolysis bullosa: Genital involvement has been reported in dystrophic forms of the disease and may cause
painful blistering in the vulvar area with consequent scarring, vaginal obstruction, and obstructive uropathy.[83]

Pigmentary changes


The skin of the inguinal and axillary regions appears diffusely hyperpigmented with a velvety or warty
surface.
Patients with this condition are usually asymptomatic, but some report local irritation and pruritus.
The malignant form is associated with a malignant tumor, most commonly a gastric carcinoma, a
lymphoma, or a sarcoma.


Lentigo appears as a small (< 4 mm), hyperpigmented, brownish macule that may be found anywhere on
the vulvar skin or mucosa. [84]
Lentiginosis is characterized by a circumscribed grouping of pigmented small macules with normal
background pigmentation.[84]
In vulvar melanosis, larger brown-to-black macules ( 10 cm in diameter), often showing irregular margins,
are observed.[84]

Benign vulvar lesions. Vulvar melanosis.

Melanocytic nevus

Melanocytic nevi appear as small, circumscribed, variably pigmented macules or raised papules that may
be congenital or acquired.
Some authors have suggested that nevi occurring on the vulva are more likely to undergo malignant
transformation; therefore, careful examination is recommended.[84]


Varying degrees of macular or patchy hyperpigmentation may occur.
The color can range from brown to black, although it is usually irregular and can also show scattered
patches of hypopigmentation.

Postinflammatory hypopigmentation: This condition is characterized by diffuse depigmentation or patches of
hypomelanosis that may be single or multiple and variably involve vulvar skin.

Vitiligo: Patients with vitiligo may develop asymptomatic progressively enlarging white patches on the vulvar skin
and mucosae that, in fair-skinned individuals, may be barely appreciable upon clinical observation using a natural
light source. Vitiligo may be confused with lichen sclerosus, but the skin in this condition is not atrophic.

Mucous cysts

These cysts usually cause no symptoms and appear as a lump or mass that may be found at the introitus
and labia minora.
Cysts of the canal of Nuck can give rise to a hydrocele located high in the labia majora and are associated
with a concurrent inguinal hernia in 30% of cases.

Bartholin cyst and Skene duct cyst

Bartholin cysts are the most common vulvar cystic growths. They usually occur in the lower and lateral
portion of the labia majora, although lesions expanding anteriorly have also been described, and, if large,

they may cause variable discomfort, hampering sexual intercourse and micturition.[45]
Skene duct cysts arise adjacent to the urethral meatus and, if large enough, may cause urinary
obstruction.
In both conditions, acute infection with abscess formation may occur, thus causing considerable pain.

Epidermal inclusion cyst

These cysts are most commonly observed in the vagina, but they can also be found on the vulva.

Benign vulvar lesions. Epidermal inclusion cyst located in the middle portion of the labium majus.

Such cysts are subcutaneous and generally asymptomatic unless they become infected. Spontaneous
rupture often occurs.


Seborrheic keratoses appear as single or multiple verrucous, roundish, yellowish-brown, sharply
circumscribed papules ranging in diameter from 2-10 mm and covered with a greasy friable scale. [85, 86]
They often have a "stuck-on" appearance.

Acrochordon: These lesions, often multiple and appearing as soft, pedunculated, brown, tan, or skin-colored
lesions (0.2-1.5 cm in diameter), can particularly be found in the inguinal folds of obese and/or diabetic patients.


Fibromas, fibromyomas, and dermatofibromas usually appear as solitary, slightly raised, gray-brown,
mobile indurated lesions (3-8 mm in diameter) developing along the insertion of the round ligament into the
labia majora.
Fibromas may be pedunculated and may rarely reach a considerable size.
In dermatofibromas, lateral compression produces a slight indentation known as the dimple sign, which is
characteristic of these tumors. These lesions usually cause no symptoms until they reach a larger size
and/or are located near the introitus or urethra.

Lipoma

On the labia majora, lipomas may appear as soft sessile or pedunculated masses varying in diameter from
1 cm to several centimeters.
Large lesions may gradually ulcerate.

Hidradenoma

Hidradenomas usually occur in postpuberty as single mobile nodules (~1-1.5 cm in diameter) arising in the
interlabial sulcus.
Ulceration may occur, and in these cases, the lesions may show an exophytic proliferation clinically
resembling a malignant neoplasm.

Syringoma

Vulvar syringomas manifest as small, multiple, bilateral, skin-colored to yellowish or brownish pruritic
papules over the labia majora. Typical syringomas on the eyelids may coexist in one third of cases.[49]

Hemangioma

Most genital hemangiomas involve the labia majora, but the labia minora, the perineal area, and the perianal
area may also be involved to varying degrees. They appear as red macules that rapidly progress to well-
circumscribed, raised, red, and soft lesions of variable size.

Benign vulvar lesions. Hemangioma.

Over time, regression occurs, with involution and fibrosis. Possible complications include ulceration,
bleeding, urethral obstruction, and Kasabach-Merritt syndrome (a consumptive coagulopathy mainly
described in association with large hemangiomas).

Lymphangioma: This condition is usually detected early in infancy on the labia minora or majora as an
asymptomatic, raised, compressible, doughy mass, sometimes showing multiple clustered, superficial, thin-
walled, translucent, and persistent pseudovesicles filled with clear fluid that may progressively grow over time.[52]

Angiokeratoma

Angiokeratomas manifest as 1-3 mm, dark, red-to-purple, and sometimes hyperkeratotic papules. Patients
are usually asymptomatic.

Benign vulvar lesions. Angiokeratomas.

Occasionally, patients become symptomatic, with vulvar itch, discomfort, or pain. The lesions may bleed as
a result of trauma. When they appear in teenagers and are associated with angiokeratomas of the lower
abdomen, Fabry disease should be excluded.

Pyogenic granuloma

Pyogenic granuloma appears as a bright red papule or nodule of no more than 1-2 cm in diameter; erosion
and bleeding may occur.
It may persist indefinitely unless destroyed.

Endometriosis

Often painful, vulvar endometriosis manifests as an ill-defined, dark red, brown, or blue-black cystic papule
or nodule, usually located on the posterior fourchette. A case of endometriosis infiltrating the Bartholin
gland has been observed.
It sometimes shows a cyclical variation in size and symptoms according to menses. More widespread
involvement is a significant cause of pain and distress.


Heterotopic sebaceous glands often arise on the labia minora and inner aspects of the labia majora as
multiple superficial yellow papules (1-3 mm in diameter) that can be clearly seen when the mucosa is

stretched.
The clinical features of sebaceous gland hyperplasia differ from those of typical lesions on the face and
have been described as polypoid tumors no greater than 2.5 cm in diameter on the labia majora, covered by
normal-appearing skin. These lesions may regress, and they have no malignant potential.[58]


These lesions are found distal to the hymenal ring.

Benign vulvar lesions. Papillomatosis.

They consist of raised, fleshy, skin-colored, soft, asymptomatic micropapillae of the inner labia minora,
usually 1-3 mm in diameter and symmetric, that occur singly or become confluent, forming a fimbriated
fringe.


Infants with female pseudohermaphroditism usually present with an enlarged phallus, alone or associated
with some degree of labioscrotal fusion.
Reduced levels of cortisol and consequent sodium depletion, which can be life threatening in neonates,
may be associated in forms resulting from 21-hydroxylase deficiency.
Underdevelopment of male genitalia can yield a female phenotype in the most extreme cases of male
pseudohermaphroditism.


The patient is asymptomatic except for nuisances regarding hygiene, physical activity, or sexual
intercourse. The large labia may be unilateral or bilateral.

Benign vulvar lesions. Labial hypertrophy.

If hygienic care is not maintained, erythema and irritation may result.

Labial adhesions: The extent of fusion varies and often causes no symptoms. The natural history is one of
spontaneous resolution with pubertal estrogenization.

The mucosal surface is dry, and mild atrophy of the labia minora, clitoris, and inner aspects of the labia majora
occurs.

The clinical appearance may resemble that of the later stages of lichen sclerosus. These patients have relatively

few symptoms, and hyperkeratosis is not evident.

Histologic Findings

Lichen sclerosus: Histologic findings include hyperkeratosis, epithelial thinning with flattening of the rete pegs,
cytoplasmic vacuolation of basal keratinocytes, follicular plugging, homogenization of the subepithelial layer, and
inflammatory cell infiltration consisting of lymphocytes with few plasma cells.[87]


Histologic examination reveals thickening of the keratin layer (hyperkeratosis) greater than that seen with
lichen sclerosus, and epithelial hyperplasia with elongation, widening, and distortion (acanthosis) of the rete
pegs. Retention of nuclei in the keratin layer (parakeratosis) is a common finding.
Cellular elements of the epithelium proliferate, but maturation is usually normal. An inflammatory response
in the dermis usually occurs, consisting of lymphocytic and plasma cell infiltration. Varying degrees of
cellular atypia with increased mitotic activity and loss of polarity may be observed in the epidermis.
This vulval squamous epithelial hyperplasia with atypia corresponds to the entity formerly indicated as
leukoplakia, which has a malignant potential. It appears to be related to conditions that approximate vulvar
intraepithelial neoplasms (VINs) and has been found to progress to invasive carcinoma in 10% of cases.


Histologically, epidermal and epithelial hyperplasia, hyperkeratosis, and fibrotic vertical streaks of collagen
between the hyperplastic rete are present.
A superficial perivenular infiltrate is also present.


Histologic features are highly variable, from extensive ulceration to diffuse parakeratosis with vascular
congestion and ectasia to a spongiotic pattern essentially identical to allergic contact dermatitis.
In some instances, a significant individual keratinocyte necrosis with nuclear karyorrhexis and cytoplasmic
pallor occurs.

Intertrigo: Histopathologic findings are nonspecific.


In the epidermis, variable degrees of intercellular edema and spongiosis are present, which may eventually
lead to the development of an intraepidermal vesicle. Lymphocytic infiltration of the epidermis is always
present.
Concomitant with these changes are varying degrees of epithelial proliferation ranging from mild acanthosis
in early acute dermatitis to a psoriasiform epidermal hyperplasia in chronic variants. The dermis is often
congested, and edema is usually marked in active lesions.

Fixed drug eruption

Histologic changes resemble those of erythema multiforme. Necrosis of keratinocytes in the stratum
malpighii occurs.
Scattered dyskeratotic keratinocytes with eosinophilic cytoplasm and pyknotic nuclei are frequently seen in
the epidermis and represent apoptosis.

Atopic dermatitis

Mild spongiosis, exocytosis of lymphocytes, and parakeratosis are present in the epidermis.
Hyperkeratosis and wedge-shaped hypergranulosis may also be observed.[88]
A perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate with scattered histiocytes is present in the superficial dermis. [15]


The histopathologic features are a combination of those observed in psoriasis and spongiotic dermatitis.

Moderate acanthosis with focal areas of parakeratosis, regular elongation of the rete ridges, mild
spongiosis, and focal exocytosis of lymphocytes are noted. The dermis contains a sparse mononuclear cell
infiltrate.

Psoriasis: The histologic picture varies considerably with the stage of the lesion and is usually diagnostic only in
early scaling papules and near the margin of advancing plaques, ie, acanthosis with regular elongation of the rete
ridges, thinning of suprapapillary epidermis with occasional small spongiform pustules, diminished or absent
granular layer, confluent parakeratosis, elongation and edema of the dermal papillae, and dilated and tortuous
capillaries.

Reiter disease

Early pustular lesions show a spongiform macropustule in the upper epidermis that is indistinguishable from
the spongiform pattern observed in pustular psoriasis.
Parakeratosis and elongation of the rete ridges are also noted.

Lichen planus: Vulvar lichen planus shows a dense dermal inflammatory infiltrate extending to the dermoepidermal
junction in conjunction with a prominent granular cell layer, hyperkeratosis, and acanthosis.

Lupus erythematosus

Histologic findings alone may not be sufficient to allow correct classification of the subtype of eruption.
In well-developed lesions, hydropic degeneration of the basal cell layer occurs in association with edema of
the upper dermis and extravasation of erythrocytes.
Fibrinoid deposits in the connective tissue of the skin are not specific but are often observed in
erythematous, edematous lesions, especially in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.
Subcutaneous fat is often involved in systemic disease.

Darier disease

The typical histological hallmarks of Darier disease are hyperkeratosis, with a peculiar form of dyskeratosis
resulting in the formation of corps ronds and grains and suprabasal acantholysis, leading to the formation of
suprabasal clefts or lacunae with irregular upward proliferation of papillae lined with a single layer of basal
cells.
A chronic inflammatory infiltrate is present in the dermis.

Aphthosis: Histological features include necrotizing vasculitis of the superficial postcapillary venules with
associated fibrinoid necrosis, endothelial swelling, and lymphocytic perivascular infiltrate with sometimes abundant
neutrophils.

Behçet disease: Vulvar lesions show features similar to those of minor aphthosis.


Although suggestive, histopathologic features alone are not diagnostic.
Features include dermal edema; dense, diffuse neutrophilic infiltrate; engorgement and thrombosis of small-
to-medium sized vessels; necrosis; and hemorrhage.

Crohn disease

Discrete noncaseating granulomas with isolated multinucleated giant cells are present throughout the
superficial and deep dermis, with extension into subcutaneous tissue.
Occasionally, the granulomatous infiltrate is perivascular and may create secondary vascular changes.

Hidradenitis suppurativa: Histology shows chronic dermal inflammation with fibrosis and foreign body giant cells
and the presence of neutrophils and bacteria in apocrine gland ducts.

Fox-Fordyce disease: Histologic examination shows enlarged apocrine sweat glands surrounded by a dermal
inflammatory infiltrate.

Plasma cell vulvitis: Below an atrophic epidermis showing no signs of keratinocyte atypia, a dense lichenoid
infiltrate with a large number of plasma cells and occasional dilated blood vessels and hemosiderin deposition is
evident in the upper and mid dermis.

Vulvar vestibulitis

Histologic examination reveals a nonspecific, chronic lymphocytic inflammatory infiltrate in the dermis, with
foci of squamous metaplasia of the minor vestibular glands that may show nodular hyperplasia in some
cases.[89]
Some patients are found to have koilocytosis after biopsy and/or human papillomavirus infection after in situ
hybridization testing.

Blistering diseases
Familial benign chronic pemphigus (Hailey-Hailey disease): Epidermal parakeratosis and dyskeratotic suprabasal
acantholysis, with the typical appearance of a dilapidated brick wall, are common findings.

Bullous pemphigoid: A typical histopathological finding on direct immunofluorescence is the presence of a
subepidermal blister with deposition of immunoglobulins along the basement membrane.


In addition to subepidermal splitting, lamellar fibrosis beneath the epidermis is a hallmark of this condition,
but it may not be present in the initial lesions.
Neutrophils and lymphocytes predominate in the inflammatory infiltrate.

Pemphigus vulgaris

Rarely, the earliest recognized change may be eosinophilic spongiosis; more commonly, the earliest noted
change is spongiosis in the lower epidermis.
Acantholysis first leads to the formation of clefts and then to blisters in a predominantly suprabasal
location.


Erythema multiforme is considered the prototype of the vacuolar form of interface dermatitis. Because of its
acute nature, an orthokeratotic stratum corneum is formed.
Mild spongiosis and exocytosis are observed. Necrosis of keratinocytes in the stratum malpighii is typical.


Dermoepidermal fissuring is a common feature.
Different histopathologic, ultrastructural, and laboratory findings may be observed according to the clinical
subset of disease.

Pigmentary changes
Acanthosis nigricans: Histologic examination reveals hyperkeratosis and papillomatosis but only slight, irregular
acanthosis and, usually, no hyperpigmentation.

Lentigo, lentiginosis, and benign vulvar melanosis: A slight or moderate elongation of the rete ridges with an
increase in the concentration of melanocytes in the basal layer is observed.

Melanocytic nevus

Typical findings are nests of round melanocytic cells without dendrites and no sign of atypia.
Histopathology allows identification of all the evolutional steps of these lesions, which typically begin as
junctional nevi and, after having become intradermal nevi, undergo involution.


Epidermal melanin is increased.
Melanophages are present in the superficial dermis, along with a variably dense lymphohistiocytic infiltrate
around superficial blood vessels and in dermal papillae.

Postinflammatory hypopigmentation

Epidermal melanin is decreased.
A superficial and perivascular lymphohistiocytic infiltrate may be observed in the dermis.

Vitiligo: The central process is the destruction of melanocytes at the dermoepidermal junction.

Mucous cysts: Histologically, mucous cysts show a fibrous wall lined by epithelial cubical cells and filled with
mucin or, in the case of canal of Nuck cysts, a clear fluid.

Bartholin cysts and Skene duct cysts: These cysts show a fibrous wall lined by a flattened epithelium. [45, 46]

Epidermal inclusion cysts: Epidermal cysts have a wall composed of true epidermis and are filled with horny
material arranged in laminated layers.

Seborrheic keratosis: This is an exophytic and papillomatous proliferation of basaloid epidermal cells containing
horn cysts and often showing marked basal and suprabasal intracellular melanin pigmentation.

Acrochordon: Loose connective tissue rich in vessels covered by normal epidermis is observed.


Fibroma, fibromyoma, and dermatofibroma show a well-demarcated area of interwoven collagen fiber
bundles without elastic fibers covered by normal or hyperplastic epidermis.
In fibromyoma, muscle fiber bundles are evident. A dermatofibroma is a variant of the fibromyoma group
that, because of its vascularity, can present a confusing histologic picture.

Lipoma: By definition, the principal component of lipomas is mature adipocytes.[90]

Hidradenoma: Histopathologic features may be confusing; for example, a complex papillary-adenomatous pattern
arranged in an aggressive fashion with absent mitoses may be observed. [91]

Syringoma: Histology shows sweatlike glandular structures and solid epithelial nests embedded within a
sclerosing stroma; miliumlike epithelial cysts may coexist.[49]

Hemangioma

Early lesions are very cellular with few vascular channels; mitotic figures and mast cells may be prominent.
Later, vessel lumina become apparent, producing a cavernous pattern.

Lymphangioma: Cavernous dilated lymphatic channels of different sizes are evident in the dermis or subcutaneous
fat and sometimes extend into the overlying epidermis.

Angiokeratoma: Histopathologic features consist of hyperkeratosis and epidermal acanthosis overlying a dermis
that contains dilated capillary vessels in proximity to the epidermis. [90]

Pyogenic granuloma: This is a lobular vascular proliferation with distinctive plump epithelioid endothelial cells
admixed with a varying lymphocytic and eosinophilic infiltrate that tends to obscure the vessels.

Endometriosis: Typical glandular and stromal tissue of the endometrium lying within the dermis are observed.

Heterotopic sebaceous glands and sebaceous gland hyperplasia: Histologic examination shows sebaceous gland
hyperplasia.[58]

Papillomatosis (papillary vulvar hirsutism): Histologically, these lesions are angiofibromas.

Ambiguous external genitalia, congenital labial hypertrophy, and labial adhesions: No definitive histologic changes
occur.

No definitive histologic changes occur.

Differential Diagnosis and Workup
Workup and procedures

If the diagnosis is not readily apparent, unaided (ie, naked-eye) or colposcopic examination of the vulva may define
areas of abnormality that may warrant biopsy using a Keyes punch or biopsy forceps under local anesthesia.

The mainstay of diagnosis is vulvar biopsy. Furthermore, all patients with a nonneoplastic vulvar epithelial disorder
should be checked at regular intervals. Areas of ulceration or foci of granulation or nodularity that develop should
be biopsied to exclude malignant change. The formation of hyperkeratotic plaques or erosions that do not respond
to treatment should arouse suspicions of malignancy. Multiple biopsies may be necessary.

Biopsy is indicated when the diagnosis is in doubt or if management strategies would be influenced by more
information. An outpatient procedure with local anesthesia is almost always feasible. The request form should
indicate the area from which the biopsy will be taken. Excisional biopsy is feasible for small lesions, but larger
areas require sampling by punch biopsy.

Preliminary application of lidocaine and prilocaine (EMLA Cream) that is left on for about 10 minutes is helpful.
Lignocaine 1% is infiltrated in the areas to be biopsied. Disposable 2- to 6-mm punches are used (eg, Keyes
punch biopsy instruments). The 6-mm punch is used for larger legions. A rotary motion of the instrument removes
a core of tissue, which is removed by snipping off at the base with scissors. Hemostasis is usually satisfactorily
achieved with pressure, chemicals such as silver nitrate or Monsel solution, or electrocautery. With larger
biopsies, the use of absorbable sutures, such as 4-0 Vicryl, achieves hemostasis. As a rule, late bleeding is rare
and healing is rapid.


Lichen sclerosus

The differential diagnosis includes lichen planus, vitiligo, postmenopausal atrophy, cicatricial pemphigoid,
extramammary Paget disease, and sexual abuse.[4, 60, 92]
A skin biopsy is necessary to confirm the diagnosis and to exclude the presence of malignant
degeneration.


The diagnosis is one of exclusion after psoriasis, lichen sclerosus, lichen planus, and chronic eczematous
dermatitis have been ruled out.
In doubtful cases, a biopsy is suggested. This also helps identify cases of squamous cell hyperplasia with
atypia that may have a propensity to develop carcinoma.

Lichen simplex chronicus (localized neurodermatitis): Primary irritant dermatitis, chronic eczematous dermatitis,
squamous cell hyperplasia with or without atypia, and lichen planus should be excluded.[10]


The differential diagnosis includes candidal vulvitis and allergic contact dermatitis.
Skin swabs and patch testing are useful to exclude superimposed bacterial or fungal infections and allergic
contact dermatitis, respectively.

Intertrigo

The clinical presentation is often diagnostic. The differential diagnosis includes candidosis and other
conditions that may be found in intertriginous areas, such as familial benign chronic pemphigus (Hailey-
Hailey disease), psoriasis, and seborrheic dermatitis.
Bacterial and mycological investigations may be useful to detect secondary infections.
Skin biopsy is indicated when treatment fails or when an underlying disorder (eg, Hailey-Hailey disease) is
considered possible.


The differential diagnosis includes atopic dermatitis psoriasis, intertrigo, and tinea.
The diagnosis is usually made on the basis of history findings, although less obvious cases may require
patch tests. Because vulvar epithelium is more permeable than exposed skin, standard clinical patch tests
may not sufficiently mimic vulvar exposures.

Fixed drug eruption

The differential diagnosis includes recurrent herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection, lichen planus,
intertrigo,[93] and bullous pemphigoid.
Clinical history and typical morphological features usually confirm the diagnosis.

Atopic dermatitis

The differential diagnosis includes psoriasis, seborrheic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, and eczematous
candidiasis.
The diagnosis is made based on personal and family history and on clinical detection of typical lesions
elsewhere in the body. Histology is seldom necessary.


The differential diagnosis includes tinea, psoriasis, and other scaling disorders, and it may sometimes be
clinically difficult to confirm.
The presence of characteristic lesions elsewhere on the body may indicate the diagnosis.

Psoriasis

The differential diagnosis includes seborrheic dermatitis, candidal or dermatophyte infection, lichen simplex
chronicus, and contact dermatitis.
Biopsy is confirmatory but is seldom needed because the diagnosis is often clinical.

Reiter disease

The diagnostic dilemma is differentiating Reiter syndrome from pustular psoriasis.[94] Acrodermatitis
enteropathica and lymphogranuloma venereum should also be considered in the differential diagnosis.
Discrimination points include cervicitis, which is common in Reiter syndrome but not reported in psoriasis;
the greater prevalence of HLA-B27 positivity; iritis; conjunctivitis; and other mucous membrane lesions in
Reiter syndrome.
Biopsy, radiographs, and laboratory investigations are usually necessary to confirm the diagnosis and to
assess the extent and severity of the disease.[94]

Lichen planus

The differential diagnosis includes psoriasis, dermatophyte infection, lichen simplex chronicus, lichen
sclerosus, cicatricial pemphigoid, pemphigus, lupus erythematous, and bullous pemphigoid.[60]
Although demonstration of typical oral changes carries more diagnostic weight than biopsy, histopathology
is often necessary to confirm the diagnosis.[66, 95]

Lupus erythematosus

The differential diagnosis includes all causes of genital ulcers and lichen planus in its clinical variants.
Clinical presentation, histopathology, and immunohistopathology define the diagnosis. To confirm the
diagnosis, histopathologic, immunohistopathologic, and serologic investigations are required. The latter
include indirect immunofluorescence for antinuclear antibodies.

Darier disease

The differential diagnosis of lesions located in the genital and perineal area includes acanthosis nigricans,
benign familial pemphigus, and impetigo.
Clinical diagnosis necessitates histopathologic confirmation.

Aphthosis

The diagnosis is essentially clinical and one of exclusion, following appropriate cultures, serologic testing,
and biopsies to rule out other conditions. Histological features alone are not diagnostic.
The differential diagnosis includes HSV infection, chancroid, granuloma inguinale, tuberculosis, syphilis,
lymphogranuloma venereum, and Crohn disease.[19] Idiopathic vulvar ulceration should also be considered
in the premenarchal age.[96]

Behçet disease

The differential diagnosis for vulvar lesions is the same as that for aphthosis.
Diagnosis of systemic disease is based on a history of recurrent oral ulcers in conjunction with genital
ulcers, eye findings, or skin lesions.[97]

Pyoderma gangrenosum: Bacterial and mycobacterial infections, tropical ulcers, tertiary syphilis, chronic
ulcerative HSV infection, deep mycoses, ecthyma gangrenosum, and postoperative progressive gangrene are
excluded based on history findings, clinical features, and laboratory investigations.[22]

Crohn disease

The differential diagnosis includes hidradenitis suppurativa, Behçet disease, [98] lymphogranuloma
venereum, cutaneous sarcoidosis, and genitourinary tuberculosis.
Biopsy findings show the typical granulomatous changes.


The differential diagnosis includes bacterial infections, Crohn disease, and lymphogranuloma venereum. [25]
The diagnosis is usually made based on clinical findings rather than histological findings.[75]

Fox-Fordyce disease

The differential diagnosis includes syringomata and folliculopapular lichen simplex chronicus.
The clinical presentation and biopsy findings define the diagnosis.


Clinically, plasma cell vulvitis may mimic low-grade VINs and in situ carcinomas involving the same
mucosal area.
Histopathological examination is necessary to exclude intraepithelial carcinoma and to confirm the
diagnosis.[76, 77]

Vulvar vestibulitis

The differential diagnosis includes cyclic monilial vulvovaginitis and dysesthetic vulvodynia.[29, 60]
The diagnosis is based on the history, the physical findings [79, 81] and the lack of another satisfactory
etiology. Biopsy is not diagnostic.

Blistering diseases

The differential diagnosis includes intertrigo, other autoimmune blistering disorders, HSV infection, and
psoriasis.
Diagnosis is easily confirmed on the basis of clinical features, family history, and histopathological findings.

Bullous pemphigoid

The differential diagnosis includes pemphigus vulgaris, bullous drug eruptions, cicatricial pemphigoid, and
erythema multiforme.
Direct immunofluorescence is necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Circulating antibasement membrane
antibodies can be found in the sera of 70% of patients and may be identified by immunoblotting
techniques. [41]


The differential diagnosis includes erosive lichen planus and lichen sclerosus.[60]
A biopsy for routine and immunofluorescent histopathology, showing linear deposits of immunoglobulins
along the basement membrane, is usually confirmatory. Immunoblotting shows the presence of circulating
autoantibodies in 30-50% of cases.

Pemphigus vulgaris

The differential diagnosis includes bullous and cicatricial pemphigoid, erosive lichen planus, erythema
multiforme, fixed drug eruption, and paraneoplastic pemphigus.

Diagnosis is made on the basis of clinical presentation and is confirmed by histology and
immunofluorescence test results.


The differential diagnosis includes pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, drug reaction, and toxic
epidermal necrolysis.
Diagnosis is made based on the clinical pattern and is confirmed by histological examination.


Familial and clinical histories are useful to suggest the diagnosis.
Ultrastructural and immunohistochemical evaluation and genetic investigations (DNA mutation analysis) are
required for final confirmation and identification of the disorder.

Pigmentary changes

The malignant type differs from the benign types by showing more extensive and more pronounced lesions.
Endocrinological investigations are recommended.


The differential diagnosis of lentigo and vulvar melanosis includes postinflammatory hyperpigmentation,
melanocytic nevi, malignant melanoma, and pigmented basal cell carcinoma.
The role of dermoscopy in the diagnosis of pigmented mucosal lesions is currently still under evaluation.[44,
99] Histopathological examination may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis.

In cases of lentiginosis, rule out Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, LEOPARD syndrome, and inguinal freckling
associated with neurofibromatosis.

Melanocytic nevus

The differential diagnosis includes lentigo, melanoma, seborrheic keratosis, and pigmented basal cell
carcinoma.
Diagnosis is confirmed by histopathology findings. [84]


The differential diagnosis includes benign vulvar melanosis and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia.
The clinical picture and confirmatory skin biopsy define the diagnosis.

Postinflammatory hypopigmentation: The differential diagnosis includes vitiligo and lichen sclerosus.

Vitiligo

The differential diagnosis includes postinflammatory hypopigmentation, piebaldism, and lichen sclerosus.
The diagnosis is clinical.
Wood lamp examination may allow a better assessment of the extent of disease in fair-skinned individuals.
Histopathology is often unnecessary.

Mucous cyst, Bartholin cyst, Skene duct cyst, and epidermal inclusion cyst

Differential diagnosis includes cystic and solid lesions of the vulva, such as hidradenoma papilliferum,
lipoma, fibroma, leiomyoma, endometriosis.
Diagnosis is usually clinical. In case of nonspecific clinical findings, excisional biopsy is recommended.


The differential diagnosis includes bowenoid papulosis, melanocytic nevus, melanoma, pigmented basal
cell carcinoma, and verruciform xanthoma.
Dermoscopy may be helpful to rule out other pigmented vulvar lesions.

Acrochordon

Diagnosis is clinical.
The differential diagnosis includes melanocytic nevus, neurofibroma, molluscum, and neuroma.


Diagnosis is usually clinical.
The differential diagnosis includes dermal melanocytic nevus, histiocytoma, leiomyoma, neurofibroma, and
keloid.

Lipoma: Diagnosis is clinical and confirmed by biopsy.

Hidradenoma

Diagnosis requires histopathological examination.
If ulceration is present, malignant adenocarcinoma must be excluded.

Syringoma

Histology is mandatory.

Hemangioma

Diagnosis is clinical.
Biopsy samples are seldom taken from hemangiomas.

Lymphangioma: Diagnosis is usually clinical. The lesion may sometimes be clinically misdiagnosed as anogenital
warts, molluscum contagiosum, or other noninfectious conditions, and in such cases diagnosis is made by
biopsy.[100, 101]

Angiokeratoma

The differential diagnosis includes melanoma, vulvar warts, and nevi.
The diagnosis is based on clinical and histopathologic features.

Pyogenic granuloma: This growth may closely resemble a nodular melanoma, but the short history, the
pedunculated growth, and the epithelial collar are typical.

Endometriosis

These lesions may be clinically suggestive of a melanoma.
Typical histology is confirmatory.


The differential diagnosis includes human papillomavirus infection.
Diagnosis is made based on clinical findings showing monomorphous papules with a symmetric
distribution.


The diagnosis of heterotopic sebaceous glands is clinical, and no biopsy is needed.
The diagnosis of a solitary raised tumor usually requires histological confirmation.

Ambiguous external genitalia, congenital labial hypertrophy, and labial adhesions

Infants with ambiguous genitalia must be immediately assessed by a pediatrician, gynecologist, geneticist,
and endocrinologist.[102]
The diagnosis of congenital labial hypertrophy and labial adhesions is essentially clinical.

Diagnosis relies on careful clinical and histologic evaluation in order to differentiate the condition from lichen

sclerosus and other problems that may cause vulvar atrophy.

Treatment, Follow-up, and Prevention

Lichen sclerosus

Patients with lichen sclerosis typically present with thin, parchmentlike skin, which is a poor barrier to the
loss of moisture. Patients should avoid excessive drying of this skin after bathing. Bland emollients should
be used to improve moisture retention. For instance, a thin layer of petrolatum (eg, Vaseline) may be
helpful. Aqueous creams or emulsifying ointments are safe and cheap. Many proprietary preparations of
moisturizing lotions, creams, or ointments are available.
Careful hygiene, avoidance of irritants and allergens, use of cotton underwear, and avoidance of constricting
and heat-inducing clothing are sensible adjuncts of local care. The condition is independent of whether the
patient is taking hormone replacement therapy.
Currently, potent topical corticosteroids provide the best outcomes. [5, 103, 104] Clobetasol propionate 0.05%
ointment, applied twice daily for 1-3 months (with the dose gradually tapered) provides short-term relief and
long-term control in most patients.[105] Maintenance therapy with 1-2 applications per week may be
useful.[106, 107] In using a potent corticosteroid, the amount used should be monitored, with 30 g over 3
months providing a dosage level below which few local or systemic adverse effects are likely to occur. Once
daily application of mometasone furoate 0.1% cream may be an option, but its efficacy compared to
ultrapotent topical steroids has not been assessed in double-blind comparison trials.[3, 108]
Long-term sequelae of potent topical corticosteroids (eg, atrophy and thinning of skin and subcutaneous
tissues) have not been clinically significant in persons with this disorder. A protective effect from malignant
evolution has been suggested but not proved.[8, 109]
Long-term maintenance therapy of vulvar lichen sclerosus with a moisturizing cream (both safe and
inexpensive) can maintain the symptom relief induced by topical corticosteroids. This treatment may also
be associated with a reduction in topical corticosteroid use. [110]
Estrogen and testosterone creams have little or no role in the treatment of lichen sclerosus. Testosterone
propionate 2% in petrolatum applied 2-3 times a day for up to 6 months has been used, but it is only
slightly more effective than placebo and has many adverse effects (eg, clitoral hypertrophy, increased libido,
hirsutism, voice alterations). [111] Moreover, testosterone is contraindicated in children because it is
systemically absorbed, causing androgenic adverse effects. Topical progesterone has been used for adults
who did not respond to steroids or testosterone and for children. This agent is prepared by mixing 400 mg
of progesterone in oil with 4 oz of Aquaphor and is applied twice daily. As with testosterone, pruritus must
first be controlled with steroid cream before use of the progesterone cream.
Encouraging results have been obtained with tretinoin cream 0.025% and systemic acitretin.[112, 113] Close
follow-up care is recommended because of the significant risk of developing epithelial cancer.
Treatment with twice daily applications of topical calcineurin inhibitors (pimecrolimus 1% cream and
tacrolimus 0.1% ointment) is also effective. [61, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119]
Alternative treatments include intralesional steroid injections and/or cryosurgery, focal ultrasonography,
photodynamic therapy, [120, 121, 122, 123] and surgery. For pruritus unresponsive to topical steroids,
triamcinolone (Kenalog-10) may be injected locally at 1-cm grids. Surgery may occasionally be necessary
to excise hyperplastic or fissured areas of lichen sclerosus unresponsive to medical therapy, but patients
must realize that recurrence rates after excision are high. This applies even after skin grafting, when lichen
sclerosus may recur in the grafted skin. Surgery is reserved for patients in whom biopsy has identified
associated vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia or invasive SCC. In such cases, referral to a gynecologist
oncologist is in order. When introital stenosis is causing symptoms, consultation with a plastic surgeon
and vaginoplasty may be indicated. [5, 124, 125, 126]


Treatment of squamous cell hyperplasia is the same as that for lichen sclerosus and is aimed at halting the
itch-scratch-itch cycle. General attention to proper hygiene is suggested.
If the skin is moist or macerated, aluminum acetate 5% (Burow) solution applied 3-4 times daily for 30-60
minutes is beneficial.
Systemic antihistamines or tricyclic antidepressants, especially when taken at bedtime, may help. For

lichen sclerosus, the treatment of choice is a potent corticosteroid cream. In refractory lesions, intralesional
injections of triamcinolone acetonide may be an alternative.[103]


Treatment includes removal of irritants and/or allergens (if identified), followed by topical application of mild-
to-high potency corticosteroids. Do not use high-potency topical steroids for prolonged periods because of
adverse effects.
Avoid soaps and cleansing agents other than aqueous cream. Discourage excessive cleaning of the genital
area; use of hot water; overheating; and wearing of synthetic, rough, and/or tight clothing.
Review all cases after lichenification has resolved because lichen simplex chronicus may be associated
with underlying dermatoses (eg, Paget disease, Bowen disease).
Topical use of calcineurin inhibitors has recently been advocated. [127]


Identification and avoidance of the offending irritants is crucial. Symptomatic relief may be obtained with
cool sitz baths and an application of Burow solution.
Corticosteroid ointments may also be used for short-term treatment.
Discourage excessive cleaning with inadequate or aggressive soaps and wearing of tight and/or synthetic
fabrics that may cause mechanical irritation and occlusion.

Intertrigo

Gentle cleansing is often enough to elicit considerable improvement or healing.
The use of antiseptic solutions (eg, triclosan, chlorhexidine) and/or absorbent powders may also be helpful.
Sparingly applied mild topical corticosteroids (eg, hydrocortisone 1%) may be necessary to promptly relieve
local symptoms.
Instruct patients to avoid tight, hot, synthetic clothing and to keep the area cool and dry in order to stop
friction and prevent relapses.

Allergic dermatitis

Treatment starts with identification of the offending agent, followed by environmental control. [13]
Oral antihistamines and short-term use of a topical corticosteroid ointment (eg, betamethasone-17-valerate
0.1%, triamcinolone acetonide 0.1%) are usually effective.

Fixed drug eruption: Identification and elimination of the offending agent is the mainstay of treatment.[63]

Atopic dermatitis

In case of acute rash, a sitz bath or compresses with Burow solution once or twice daily are helpful.
Topical steroids, such as betamethasone-17-valerate 0.1% cream, and systemic antihistamines, such as
hydroxyzine, are indicated to relieve symptoms.[15]
Antibiotics are recommended in cases of secondary infection.
Advise patients to avoid using irritating detergents, lotions, or perfumed products, and encourage wearing of
cotton undergarments.


Treatment includes Burow solution and short-term, low-potency steroid ointments.
Topical antifungals may be helpful because Pityrosporum organisms are thought to play a role in causing
the disorder.

Psoriasis

Treatment is aimed at symptom relief, thereby minimizing the scratching and rubbing that stimulate cell
turnover.
Instruct patients to avoid chemical or mechanical traumas, including use of irritating detergents and tight
systemic clothing, in order to minimize symptoms.
The treatment of choice is calcipotriene ointment, a topical vitamin D-3 preparation that is effective without
the risk of skin atrophy.
Low-potency corticosteroid ointments may be used but are seldom effective as monotherapy.
Advise patients to avoid tar preparations, which are irritating to the vulvar skin.

In severe cases, systemic antipsoriatic agents (eg, cyclosporin, acitretin, methotrexate) may be used.

Reiter disease

Methotrexate is the treatment of choice.
Systemic retinoids or cyclosporine and topical corticosteroids may provide some relief.

Lichen planus

The first-line treatment consists of topical high-potency corticosteroid ointments.[16]
Intralesional corticosteroid injections may also be used. Short courses of systemic corticosteroids may be
needed for severe symptoms or flares of the disease.[16]
Encouraging results have been reported in the erosive form with tacrolimus 0.1% ointment or topical
cyclosporine.[128]
Systemic administration of cyclosporine, retinoids (eg, etretinate, acitretin), or oral methotrexate may be
curative in steroid-resistant cases.[129]

Lupus erythematosus

A team consisting of a dermatologist, rheumatologist, and internal medicine expert is needed for successful
management in cases of systemic involvement.
Chronic disease may be addressed with current pharmacological treatments for discoid lupus, including
high-potency steroids (eg, halobetasol, clobetasol), antimalarials (eg, chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine),
and intralesional triamcinolone.

Darier disease

Tazarotene gel is a new-generation topical retinoid that provides a useful and safe alternative for patients
with mild disease in whom the use of systemic retinoids or other drugs is contraindicated.[130]
Consider systemic treatment with oral retinoids or high-dose vitamin A for severe debilitating disease.
Daily washing with triclosan solution and use of absorbent powders are recommended.

Aphthosis

Treatment is symptomatic and mainly consists of topical fluorinated corticosteroid ointments.
Recommend gentle cleansing, sitz baths, and avoidance of irritants.

Behçet disease

Topical superpotent steroids twice a day can be prescribed for the control of local symptoms.[20]
Extremely painful ulcers may be treated with an injection of intralesional triamcinolone.
Systemic treatment consists of prednisone, dapsone, azathioprine, methotrexate, interferon alpha-2a,
sulfasalazine, cyclosporin[131] , or colchicine.[21, 132]


No specific treatment addresses pyoderma gangrenosum. [22]
Sulfonamides, corticosteroids, or immunosuppressive agents, including cyclosporine, have been the most
commonly used systemic agents.[133]
Make a thorough search for the presence of associated disorders.

Crohn disease

Treatment depends on the extent of involvement of the perineal area and the associated bowel disease.
A multidisciplinary approach that includes gynecologists, dermatologists, and gastroenterologists is
needed to successfully manage the condition.
Infliximab followed by maintenance therapy with methotrexate may represent an option for pyostomatitis
vegetans associated with Crohn disease. [134]


Gentle cleansing with triclosan solution once or twice daily is recommended.
Multiple therapies, including topical and systemic antibiotics, oral contraceptives, corticosteroids, and
leuprolide acetate, have been used with limited success.[25, 135]

The pathophysiology is similar to that of acne vulgaris; thus, treatment with oral isotretinoin has been
beneficial in selected cases.[136]
Abscess and sinus tract formation often require surgical drainage; therefore, surgery remains a mainstay in
the treatment of this disorder, and wide excision of the involved areas may be necessary. [137]

Fox-Fordyce disease

Treatment measures, including topical corticosteroids, phototherapy, and oral contraceptives[27] , are
generally of limited help.
In some cases, surgical excision may be attempted.


Treatment with topical steroids may be helpful in symptomatic patients.
In one case, excellent results were reported after 3 months of topical cyclosporine application.[138]

Vulvar vestibulitis

Treatment is difficult and often proves to be unsatisfactory.[78] Notably, spontaneous resolution has been
reported in up to 50% of cases.
Topical steroids are often used, but they appear to be of limited benefit. Patients with symptoms only
during intercourse may benefit from topical anesthetics such as lidocaine 5% ointment.[139] Serial multilevel
local anesthetic nerve blocks,[140] as well as sacral neuromodulation,[141] may be effective. Some patients
have responded to intralesional interferon alfa.[142]
Systemic treatment with tricyclic antidepressants or gabapentin may sometimes be helpful.[29, 80]
Consider surgery (vestibulectomy) for selected patients who do not have significant vaginismus and who do
not respond to conservative treatments after 1 year.[29, 143, 144, 145]

Blistering diseases

The use of anti-inflammatory agents (eg, topical corticosteroids, dapsone, thalidomide) or
immunomodulatory agents (eg, methotrexate, topical or systemic cyclosporine) has been tried with some
success.
In most cases, topical steroids are helpful for providing symptomatic relief with lesions of limited extension.
Advise patients to minimize mechanical stress to the skin (eg, avoiding tight clothes), especially in warm
and humid environments, which tends to trigger the disease.
Bacterial, yeast, or viral infections are also considered trigger factors, and treatment with antibiotics (eg,
tetracycline, erythromycin, mupirocin) or antifungals (eg, nystatin) often yields good results.

Bullous pemphigoid: Topical superpotent steroids or systemic treatment with prednisone or prednisolone,
dapsone, tetracycline, or cyclophosphamide may be used. [40]

Cicatricial pemphigoid: Treatment is the same as that for bullous pemphigoid.

Pemphigus vulgaris

Before corticosteroids became available, the mortality rate associated with this disease was high because
of fluid loss and superinfection.
Besides systemic treatment with corticosteroids and immunosuppressants, topical treatment with
corticosteroids may be used for lesions limited to the vulva, but relapses are frequent.


Identification and treatment of any underlying cause is essential.
Mild cases are self-limited and require no treatment.
Systemic corticosteroid treatment is controversial.


No effective treatment is currently available.
Avoidance of trauma is of utmost importance in order to prevent scarring.

Benign vulvar lesions

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