Read to learn about trends in close reading history and how this process might be used today to support literacy learning.

1. What is “Close Reading”?
A closer reading of texts improves literacy learning by
stretching the capacity for critical thinking and reflection.
In the fall of 2009, more than forty states agreed to enact the Common Core State Standards
Initiative. The K-12 standards would define essential knowledge and skills necessary for college
and career readiness. After considerable input from teachers, postsecondary educators, and
interest groups, the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and
the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) released the final draft to the public. In
concert with this release came a score of proposed changes and ‘instructional shifts’. An
emphasis on close reading of complex texts is but one example of an instructional shift implied
by the standards. It should be noted, however, that the words ‘close reading’ are altogether
absent from the current draft of the literacy standards.
So, what IS close reading?

2. It depends on whom you ask (and when). In its simplest form, a close reading is nothing more
than a careful observation of text. It usually begins with a text selection worthy of repeated
readings and close reflection on language, structure, and meaning. In a stricter sense, close
reading is a formal skill refined by practice in developing precise interpretations of literature
through linguistic, semantic, structural, and cultural lenses. This approach typically begins by
looking at the smaller details before moving to larger issues and more often follows a rigid
format, sequence or set of preplanned steps.
Various approaches to close reading have come and gone over the years. Each approach can be
defined by the fundamental tenets or beliefs of its advocates. In each case, the lens through
which quality literature is analyzed appears to be influenced by intellectualism and the leading
philosophies of the day.
New Critical Formalism
In the early 20th century, a group of American critics, most of whom taught at Southern
Universities following World War I, developed an approach to literature characterized by close
attention to the text itself. This approach acted in direct opposition to both impressionistic and
historical approaches that prevailed during that time. Impressionistic approaches were
characterized by a more subjective description and interpretation of literature that formalists
feared was too 'shallow' and arbitrary. Historicists’ approaches, on the other hand, were
characterized by an emphasis on the historical context or time period in which the text was
written. Formalists argued that such approaches served to distract readers and these
distractions prevented readers from arriving at an accurate interpretation of texts. Formalists’
attempts to systematize the study of literature were centered on a stringent study of the text
itself.
Reader Response to Literature
In the late 1930s, a teacher by the name of Louise Rosenblatt published Literature as
Exploration (1938). Her theories served to reject New Critical Formalism theories that were
quite popular at the time. Rosenblatt opposed the idea that texts were sufficient in-and-of-
themselves. She also rejected the notion that “teachers were to teach the skills of close,
concise, attentive analysis while discouraging expression of and attention to differences in
students' own individual responses” (Inquiry, 1997). Rosenblatt believed close reading of
literature involved a ‘transaction’ of sorts between the reader and the text (Rosenblatt, 1978).
She also believed that readers developed special and often unique meaning through complex
interaction with words and images. Simply put: meaning results from the interaction between

3. the reader and the text. Any response or approach to literature that does not consider the
reader strays from the true path to meaning.
New Historicism
By the 1990s, New Historicism became quite popular as a form of literary criticism and
approach to close reading. Unlike traditional historical approaches of the early 20th century that
focused primarily on the context or period in which a work was written, New Historicism
evaluated a work by placing an additional emphasis on the life of the author. Where did the
author live? Did the environment or social setting influence his or her work? To what degree
does the writer's emotional or psychological state influence his or her work?
Today
Close reading today comes in many forms. In some settings, it is practiced as a skill, strategy or
rigorous approach to critical analysis that encourages careful observation of texts worthy of
reading and re-reading. Practitioners may choose to conduct a close reading using canonical
literature and contemporary literature, informational texts, art, or even media and such a
reading is usually accompanied by rich discussion and analytical writing. Here are a few great
examples of close reading approaches that can be modified to suit your specific interests and
needs:
Language Arts
Select a short excerpt, passage, or poem that you deem worthy of closer consideration. Read
the text multiple times (at least once aloud if this is possible). Begin with a meticulous look at
the smaller details such as word meanings and diction. Use references, if you must, to ensure
the most accurate descriptions and connotations of word meanings. This is essential before
moving to larger ideas. Consider the syntax, structure, and rhythm of the text as well as
imagery, voice, and rhetorical devices. Now, the reader can more accurately discuss larger
themes presented throughout the work including historical importance and context. It is at this
point that the reader constructs a thesis based upon detailed observations made during the
close reading of the text. This 'argument' is constructed using the finer details gathered during
the close reading. The written analysis serves as an opportunity for the reader to make a strong
case grounded in solid evidence. Author and philosopher Sophia McClennan provides a step-
by-step guide which makes clear the connection between close reading, writing, and
discussion. Additionally, the Council of the Great City Schools offers an excellent guide to
support the development of text-dependent questions for close analytic reading.

4. Social Studies/History
Unlike the language arts example, a close reading using social studies or history-related content
begins with the big ideas and works its way down to the smaller details and observations. Both
approaches are similar in that each approach requires careful observation of text or media
worthy of close, thoughtful, careful consideration. However, a close reading in this content-area
is less subjective and the emphasis is more on how a speaker or writer makes a case, proves
ideas, or how the work reflects a significant moment in history. The best way to begin a close
reading in this area is to present students with a text that clearly puts forth a powerful idea
such as Patrick Henry's Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death speech. Pull an excerpt of the
transcript of the speech and ask students to consider how Henry conveys his ideas. What does
he mean by 'truth'? For whom? What does Henry mean by 'illusions of hope'? Can you provide
any text-based examples? Readers can and should be allowed to consider this excerpt in the
context of other important events during the period as well as other source documents. This
only adds to the accuracy of observations made by the reader. In this case, the goal is not that
learners take an important part of history and create their own versions of what happened.
Instead, readers are encouraged to use the text as validation for arguments and themes
contained within them. A well-constructed thesis or argument is one that can be supported
only after close examination of the source text in question.
Science
The underlying aim of the practice of close reading in science is the development of skeptical,
reasonable, and thoughtful readers. One approach is the close reading of a scientific report.
Readers are guided through questions that begin with a general overview of the report. What is
the objective of the study? What were the claims? How do the results support the claims or
conclusions made? Then, readers begin analyzing the text and making closer observations. Are
the author’s credentials appropriate? How do you know? Is there any proof? Are there any
biases? If so, to what degree might these biases influence results? Finally, readers are
encouraged to consider the implications of the study. What might this mean for the population
studied? Does it mean anything for us? Another approach to close readings in science is gaining
popularity due to the Common Core State Standards Initiative. The Partnership for the
Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) has developed research simulation
tasks requiring students to synthesize information from a variety of multimedia sources. The
simulation begins with a prompt that defines a problem or a situation. Additionally, students
are required to read 2-3 informational text selections which might include a table, chart, or
graph. The task? Through deduction and close observation, write an argument or analysis which

5. solves a real-world problem. This task currently appears within the literacy/language arts test
item samples. However, it is gaining in popularity as an approach to conducting close readings
in science.
Specific approaches to close reading continue to evolve and—still—are informed by the leading
philosophies of our time. Despite what may appear to be competing public interests there is at
least one common thread that seems to hold true:
A close reading requires deep thought and attention to the finer details of a work; it should
strengthen our mental capacities, spark interest in further reading, and ultimately teach us
something about others and ourselves.
Sources
 Abrams, M.H. "New Criticism." A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. Fort Worth:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999. 180-182.
 Church, G.W. from Inquiry, Volume 1, Number 1, Spring 1997, 71-77
 Lynn, Steven. Texts and Contexts: Writing About Literature with Critical Theory. 2nd
ed. NY: Longman, 1998.
 Rosenblatt, L. (1938).Literature as Exploration. New York: Appleton-Century;
(1968). New York: Noble and Noble; (1976). New York: Noble and Noble; (1983).
New York: Modern Language Association; (1995). New York: Modern Language
Association.
 Rosenblatt, L. (1978).The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of
the literary work. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Press; (1994). Carbondale, IL:
Southern Illinois Press.
 Wirt, William. Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry . (Philadelphia)
1836, as reproduced in The World's Great Speeches, Lewis Copeland and Lawrence
W. Lamm, eds., (New York) 1973.
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