Copyright (c) 2014 by Dimitry Bubis. All Rights Reserved

1. History of
Civilization
VII. NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST BEFORE 331 BCE

2. TOPICS
Hebrews from King David to prophet Daniel
Cyrus the Great and Achaemenid Empire
Zoroastrianism
Gaugamela, 331 BCE
Iron Age in Near East
Ashurbanipal and Assyrian Empire
Nebuchadnezzar II and New Babylonian Empire
The Phoenicians

3. CHRONOLOGY
1000 800 600 400 200 BCE 1 CE
1180 Hattusa taken
1155 Babylon falls to Elam
1087 Babylon destroyed
1003 King David
931 King Solomon dies
911 Assyrians expand
850 Urartu rises
814 Carthage founded
760 Nubians take Egypt
753 Rome founded
738 Israel falls
689 Babylon destroyed
656 Assyrians take Egypt
626 Chaldean Empire
612 Nineveh taken
587 Jerusalem destroyed
583 Zarathustra dies ?
550 Cyrus takes over Medes
539 Cyrus captures Babylon
522 Darius I the Great
486 Xerxes I
480 Persians invade Greece
431-404 Peloponnesian War
331 Gaugamela
323 Alexander dies
308 Republic in Carthage
218 Hannibal invades Italy
182 Hannibal dies
160 Maccabees
146 Romans take Greece
63 Syria annexed by Rome
44 Caesar assassinated
31 Actium
Rome Kingdom Republic
Greece “Dark” Archaic Classical Hellenistic Roman
Carthage Monarchy Republic
M. East “Dark” Neo-Assyrian Chaldean Achaemenid Seleucid
Egypt 3rd Intermediate Nubian Saite Achaemenid Ptolemaic

4. AFTER HATTUSA FELL
Hattusa destroyed ca. 1180 BCE
after combined assault of traditional adversaries
of Hittites and migrating tribes and peoples
(Kaska, Mysians, Sea Peoples)
Collapse of Empire was followed by
period of fragmentation and ruralization
Lions Gate in ruins of Hattusa
Neo-Hittite
(Luwian)
states
Asia minor overran by Thracians, Phrygians, Mysians, Lydians
Aramaic states raise around upper Euphrates after 1000 BCE
Regional (Syria) kingdoms use trilingual inscriptions in Aramaic, Akkadian, Phoenician

5. TURMOIL IN BABYLON
Nebuchadnezzar I
reign ca. 1126 – 1103 BCE
fourth king of IVth dynasty,
(of Royal house of Isin)
Victory over Elam,
retrieval of Marduk idol from Susa
Kassites reduced to subordinate state
Suffered defeats at hands of Assyrians
Relations with Assyrians improve ca. 1050 BCE
Dynasty overrun by Arameans, fell ca. 1026 BCE
Turbulence (anarchy, then return of Kassites, then return of Elamites, then native rule) ended with incorporation into Assyrian Empire ca. 911 BCE
Nabû-kudurr-usur = Nabû, protect my heir!”

6. MIDDLE ASSYRIAN PERIOD
Tiglath-Pileser I reign ca. 1114 – 1076 BCE
(early Iron Age), assuming title
“King of Sumer and Akkad”
Assyria acquired leading position in Near East it will hold thru “Ancient Dark Ages” and for next 500 years
Period from 1056 BCE to 936 BCE: Mesopotamian “Dark Age” – Assyrians suffer civil strife and attacks from Arameans
Ashur-Dan II (935 – 912 BCE) improved governance and economy and was followed by succession of able leaders
Architecture and arts surpass contemporary Babylonian
Clay prism glorifying
achievements of Tiglath-Pileser
(from Ashurbanipal’s library)

7. AFTER NEW KINGDOM IN EGYPT
With death of Ramesses XI in 1077 BCE ended his 20 years’ rule, XXth dynasty, and New Kingdom epoch
High Priests of Amun in Thebes became more powerful institution than pharaoh: controlling resources: 2/3 of all temple lands, 90% of navy; thus Thebes Priests exercised power over Middle and Upper Egypt
XXIst dynasty (1077 – 941 BCE) retained control over Lower Egypt ruling from Tanis
Funerary mask of Psusennes I
(reigned 1047 – 1001 BCE)
Meshwesh were Libyan tribe gradually taking control over Lower Egypt, with Osorkon the Elder reigning in 992 – 986 BCE
XXIInd, XXIIIrd, XXIVth dynasties: ruled till 722 BCE (Kushite takeover)
Tanis

8. STORY OF EXODUS
Exodus is second book of Bible
Attributed to Moses
Not an historical narrative
Merneptah’s
“Israel” stele
ca. 1208 BCE
Cf. Story of Sargon
Cf. Story of Sinuhe
Ipuwer Papyrus
(ca. 2nd intermediate period)
or “Admonitions of Ipuwer
or “Dialogue with Lord of All”
Catastrophe
Divine punishments
Prophecy
Messianism
Main themes of Exodus
Salvation
Theophany
Covenant of Sinai
Pre-eminence
< Mt.Sinai
שמות

9. BOOK OF NUMBERS
From Mount Sinai
to Jordan Crossing
Resident God
From oppression to possession of milk and honey
Moses and the Brazen Snake
במדבר
Grapes of Canaan by James Tissot
Balaam and the Ass by R.H. van Rijn
Main themes of Numbers
Covenants and Promise
Inheritance and Generations
Unfaithfulness and Retribution

10. CONQUEST OF CANAAN
Book of Joshua
Faithfulness
Obedience
Land
Destruction
Story of Rahab
Story of Achan
A
Joshua commanding the Sun
by John Martin (1816)
Joshua and the walls of Jericho by Esteban March (ca. 1650s)
ספר יהושע

11. BOOK OF SAMUEL
Eli, priest at Shilo
Childless Hannah
Philistines capture Ark
Saul is anointed King
Victories and unity
Rejection of Saul
King David
David and Saul by E. Josephson (1878)
ספר שמואל
David and Goliath by Titian (1544)

12. KING DAVID
King of Judea since 1010 BCE
King of Israel since 1005 BCE
City of David
The Covenant
Bathsheba and Uriah
Absalom rebels
Psalms
דוד המלך
ca. 1040 – 970 BCE
Tree of Jesse
(Chartres cathedral)
David and Prophet Nathan

13. KING SOLOMON, ISRAEL DIVIDED
 המלש ה ךלמ
reign 970 – 931 BCE
The temple
Visit of the Queen
Wisdom
Riches
The sins
 Rehoboam רחבעם
Reign 931 – 913 BCE
The split: ten northern tribes under Jeroboam
Egyptian invasion:
Sheshonk Ist Meshvesh King
and founder of XXIInd Dynasty
Solomon’s Judgment
by Gustave Dore

14. THE PHOENICIANS
Fertile crescent (Semitic) culture, city-states based on maritime trade
Primacy:
Hiram Ist of Tyre (ca. 980 – 947 BCE)
“Asian” → fnḥw
(Egyptian)
Φοίνικες
= Tyrian Purple
בעל צור : מלך קרתא =
Phoenician Bireme
with single mast and bronze ram
Byblos 1200 – 1000 BCE
Tyre 1000 – 800 BCE

15. LOGOGRAPHY TO ABJAD TO ALPHABET
Cf. story of Cadmus Greek “Bringer of Letters” said to be a Phoenician prince
Τύρος
Logograms evolved into syllabograms
Phoenicians’ invention of phonetic symbols was adopted for Aramaic
Abjads evolved into alphabets
צור
صور
Tyros

16. ASSYRIA RECOVERS
Adad-nirari II
reign 911 – 891 BCE
- Neo-Assyrian Empire
Shalmaneser III
reign 859 – 824 BCE
Strategically:
Offensive
Intimidation (destruction, deportation, colonization)
Military advances:
Iron weapons
Horses as strategic resource
Specialized troops
Sappers, pontoons
Siege technology

17. AHAB, JEZEBEL, AND ELIJAH
Ahab, King of Israel
Son of Omri, “oppressor of Moab”, ally of Jehoshaphat king of Judah
reigned ca. 874 – 853 BCE
married Jezebel, daughter of Ithobaal I, king of Tyre
confronted Assyrians at Karkar
killed in battle with Arameans
sons and wife perished in Jehu’s revolt ca. 842 BCE
Elijah the Prophet אֱלִיָּהוּ
Born in Tishbe, Gilead
“Troubler of Israel” (Ahab)
Miracle-worker, defender of cult against Canaanite prophets of Baal
Succeeded by Elisha אֱלִישָּע
Confrontation at Naboth’s Vineyard
(print by Sir Frank Dicksee)
ספר מלכים
Book of Kings:
History & Fiction
Promise
Apostasy & Ruin

18. URARTU
Armenian Highlands: Iron Age Kingdom of Ararat
Incorporated Nairi : Hurrian-speaking states which fought Hittites and Assyrians after fall of Mittani
Hayk the tribal leader (Erevan)
Shalmaneser III’s
raid and capture of
Arzashkun ca. 843 BCE
Ուրարտու
Հայկ Նահապետ
Aramu (Արամ) the first king (858 – 844 BCE) of Urartu
After 714 BCE: decline
Cimmerian raids
King Rusa I: defeat by Sargon II
Recuperated in 7th century BCE
Fell to Medes after 590 BCE
Tree of Life on helmet of Sarduri II (764 – 735 BCE)

19. CARTHAGE
King of Tyre Matan 1st (840 – 832 BCE) was succeeded by Pygmalion (832 – 785 BCE)
Princess Dido (a.k.a Elyssa) according to legend fled Tyre 825 BCE, founded new colony ca. 814 BCE (Cf. Isoperimetric problem)
בעל האמון
“The Lord of Multitude” Chief deity of Carthage
קרת חדשת 
= New City
(Phoenician)
φοινικική θαλασσοκρατορία = Phoenician thalassocracy
Aeneas speaks of Trojan War to Dido
Illustration by Pierre Guérin for Aeneid

20. NUBIAN TAKEOVER OF EGYPT
Kushite kings conquered Lower Egypt, Piye (ca. 752 – 721 BCE) established XXVth dynasty:
Restoration of Amun cult
Reunification
Clashed with Assyrians in Canaan
Fell ca. 656 BCE to Ashurbanipal
Piye (on left, erased)
accepts tribute from Nile delta rulers
& Shabaka’s, Son of Piye, head (Louvre)
Piye’s pyramid in El-Kurru (North Sudan)

21. ASSYRIAN CONQUESTS
Ashur-Dan III (reign 772 – 755 BCE)
Dealt mainly with plagues and revolts
Tiglath-Pileser III (reign 745 – 727 BCE)
Former military governor of Kalhu (Nimrud)
Usurped the throne in civil war
Instituted reforms of army and governance
Annexed Babylonia
Defeated Urartu
Defeated Syro-Hittites, Hebrews, Philistines, and Arabs
Conquered Medians and Persians
Shalmaneser V (reign 727 – 722 BCE)
Defeated pharaoh Piye who supported Canaanite kingdoms
Conquered Northern kingdom of Israel
Shalmaneser III at battle of Karkar (ca. 853 BCE)

22. ASSYRIAN ZENITH
Sargon II (722 – 705 BCE)
Capital: Ashur to Nineveh
Pact with Marduk-apla- Iddina (crowned king of Babylon in 721 BCE)
Sennacherib (705 – 681 BCE)
Revolt of Hezekiah (701 BCE)
Revolt in Babylon and war with Elam (693 BCE)
Disaster in Egypt (Cf. Byron’s poem)
Murdered in 681 BCE
Esarhaddon (681 – 669 BCE)
Sidon destroyed
War in Egypt
Lammasu of Sargon II

23. ASHURBANIPAL
Reigned 668 – 627 BCE
Son of Esarhaddon
Pride of scribal education and knowledge of languages
Empire at maximal territory, overreached and overextended
667 BCE: victory over Taharqa (Nubian king of Egypt)
Capture of Memphis and Thebes
Installed Psamtik I (reign ca. 664 – 610 BCE) , first pharaoh in XXVIth dynasty
Babylonian revolt (648 BCE)
Ashurbanipal hunting lions
(British Museum)
Library of Nineveh
More than 20 000 tablets
Discovered in 1849
νινευή
נינוה
نينوى
Nineveh

24. 6TH CENTURY BCE
460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610 620 630 640 650 660
Siddh.Gautama 563 -483
Confucius 551 - 479
Lao Tzu ? - ?
Mahavira 540 - 468
Zarathustra ? – 583?
Assyrian Empire
Achaemenid
Empire
550 – 331
Urartu
Babylonian Exile
465Xerxes I murdered 480 – 479 Second Persian invasion of Greece 486 Xerxes I son of Darius ascends 492 – 490 First Persian invasion of Greece 499 – 493 Ionian revolt 510 – 507 Athenian democracy established 515 Darius conquers Indus 521 – 517 Temple restored 522 Darius the Great ascends, all Empire revolts 525 Achaemenid Egypt (XXVII dyn.) begins 538 Tyre and Phoenicia fall to Cyrus 539 Babylon falls to Cyrus. End of Chaldeans 540 Susa falls to Cyrus 547 Lydia falls to Cyrus 550 Pasargadae. Medes collapse 553 Persian Revolt 556 Nabonidus king in Babylon 559 Cyrus king of Persia 567 Pharaoh Apries killed 573 After 13 year siege Tyre submits to Chaldeans
580Cambyses I ascends as king of Persia 585 Eclipse of Thales. Lydian-Median war ends. 587 Temple destroyed 589 Pharaoh Apries ascends, intervenes in Judea 590 – 595 Medes subjugate Armenia 605 Nebuchadnezzar II king in Babylon 610 – 605 Babylonian war against Egypt 612 Nineveh taken by Medes. Assyria falls 625 Nabopolassar king in Babylon, allied to Medes 626 Cyaxares king of Medes, Scythians thrown off 627 Ashurbanipal dies 648 Babylonian Revolt 665 Ashurbanipal installs Pharaoh Psamtik I 678 Median tribes united
Medes 625 - 550
Chaldeans 626 - 539
Saite Egypt (XXVI dynasty)
Lydia
Daniel 620 - 536
Nebuchdnezzar 634-562
Ezek. 622 - 570
Jeremiah ? - 586
Darius I 550 - 486
Astyages ? - 550
Cyaxares ? - 585
Ashurbanipal
Nabpl. 658-605
Croesus 595-547
Pythagoras 570 - 495
Anaximander 611-546
Thales 624 - 546
Solon 638 - 558
Cyrus II 600 - 530
Xerxes I 519-465
XXV

25. THE MEDES
Aryan-speaking people, initially (X – VIIth cent) subjects of Assyria
King Cyaxares the Great
Father: king Phraortes, killed in action against Assyrians
Led the revolt against Scythians
Reign ca. 625 – 585 BCE
Alliance with Nabopolassar, marriage of princess Amythis to Babylonian king’s son
Fall and capture of Nineveh: 612 BCE
Lydia
Egypt
Media
Armenia
Ecbatana (Hamadan)
Arya
Parthia
Babylon
Persis
Persian
and
Median
soldiers
(carving in
Persepolis)
Median Kingdom under Cyaxares after 590 BCE
War with Lydia: 590 -585 BCE
Battle of Halys: 585 BCE
Astyages ascends in 585, marries Aryenis, sister of king Croesus
Astyages’ dream (Herodotus)
550 BCE, battle of Pasargadae: troops’ mutiny and loss to Persians led by Cyrus the Great

26. LYDIAN KINGDOM
Lydian Kingdom under Croesus
before 547 BCE
Gyges 716 – 678 BCE moved capital to Sardis
Ardys II 678 – 624 BCE
Alyattes II 619 – 576 BCE
destroyed Smyrna and subjugated Miletus
fought Medes till 585 BCE (Battle of Eclipse on Halys), then concluded truce
Model of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus (built ca. 550 BCE)
Croesus (reign 560 – 547 BCE)
Legendary riches
Interview with Solon
Episode with ambiguous Oracle
Sardis captured in winter by Persians led by Cyrus the Great
Stories of Croesus’ pyre
Exact fate unknown
Impact of Lydia’s fall on Greek worldview

27. CHALDEANS IN BABYLON
Nabopolassar the Chaldean ruler of Babylon lead the revolt against Assyrians in 626 BCE
Revival of Babylonian tradition, religion, Akkadian language and script; excavations, and building
Neo-Babylonian Empire ca. 600 BCE
War with Egypt from 610 BCE
605 BCE:
battle of Carchemish
succeeded by his son Nebuchadnezzar II

28. NEBUCHADNEZZAR II
Reign 605 – 562 BCE
Marriage to Median Amythis
Subjugation of Judah, attempted invasion of Egypt (601 BCE)
Destruction of the Jerusalem temple (587 BCE)
Siege of Tyre (586 – 573 BCE)
Biblical story of madness?
Ishtar Gate inscription
Daniel interpreting Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams (by M. Preti, XVIIth cent.) The Colossus Cut Down Tree
Hanging Gardens (according to modern views)

29. JEREMIAH & EZEKIEL
Lament of destruction
Cf: Psalm 137: - “Va, Pensiero…” (Nabucco by Verdi) - “By waters of Babylon”
Judgment on Judah and Jerusalem
Judgment of Nations
Hope and salvation
ספר יחזקאל
ספר ירמיהו
Foundations of Mysticism: Ezekiel’s Visions - Merkaba, The Valley of Dry Bones (illustrations by G. Dore)
593 – 571 BCE
627 – 586 BCE

30. BOOK OF DANIEL
Daniel (ca. 620 – 536 BCE) born in Judea, died in Persia
Daniel’s Answer to the King
by B. Rivière (1890)
1.Babylonian captivity
2.Nebuchadnezzar's Dream of Four Kingdoms
3.The fiery furnace
4.Nebuchadnezzar’s madness
5.Belshazzar’s feast
6.The lion’s den
7.Vision of the Four Beasts from the sea and Son of Man
8.Vision of ram and goat
9.Prophecy of Seventy Weeks
10.Vision of a man
11.Kings of the North and the South
ספר דניאל
ἀποκάλυψις = “un – covering”, revelation
Parallel symbols: Book of Daniel, Revelation of John

31. NABONIDUS AND BELSHAZZAR
Reign: ca. 556 – 539 BCE
Assyrian from Harran, of humble origins
Interest in Archaeology
Henotheistic worship of Naram-Sin
Long stay in Tayma oasis
Belshazzar (son) ruled in Babylon
Ennigaldi (daughter) the high priestess in Ur ran school for girls and worlds’ first museum of antiques
539 BCE: the end of Chaldean kingdom: Babylon is taken by Persians led by Cyrus the Great
Conflicting accounts
The Writing on the Wall by R.H. van Rijn (1635)
Nabonidus Chronicle tablet (British Museum) “Propaganda by Marduk priests in favor of Cyrus”

32. THE BIBLE
תַנַ"ךְ
תּוֹרָה, נְבִיאִים, כְתוּבִים = → Teaching, Prophets, Writings
Old Testament books in Christian canon
Psalms Scroll
one of 972
Dead Sea scrolls
τὰ βιβλία → “the Books” (Koine)
24 books in Jewish canon are foundation of the scripture in Abrahamic religions
Believed to be inspired by God
Formed around 7th – 6th centuries BCE
Septuagint translation evolved into Old Testament of Christians

33. BOOKS OF WISDOM
Sapiential literature in Fertile Crescent
Ancient Egyptian
Genre called “Sebayt” or instructions / moral teachings, on aspects of ethics, virtue, law, justice
Developed in Middle Kingdom
Attributed to powerful and wise rulers passing their knowledge to posterity
Teachings of Ptah-Hotep
Vizier of King Isesi of Vth dynasty (ca. XXIVth century BCE)
Elderly official describing challenges of advanced age and detailing instructions to son preparing for office
Expounds virtues of learning, service, kindness, and generosity
Sumerian and Akkadian
Fables and didactic stories
Instructions of Shuruppak (3rd millennium BCE) are admonitions to Ziusudra (Utnapishtim) with practical and moral teachings
Gilgamesh meeting Siduri and Utnapishtim (illustrations by H.Nozadian)
Poem of the Righteous Sufferer
480 lines in first person praising Lord of Wisdom (Marduk), from Kassite period
Šubši-mašrâ-Šakkan is a man afflicted by unfortunate turn of fate, illness, slander, etc.

34. BOOK OF JOB
Job speaking to his wife by Georges de la Tour (ca. 1640)
A long long time ago, in a land of Uz …
A man who is “Blameless and Upright” becomes a focus of Satan’s challenge to God
Will he curse God if stricken by evils?
“Shall we accept good from God and not accept evil?”
Structure of the narrative:
Prologue (prose)
Story (in poetic form)
o3 – 31: Discussion between Job, Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar
o32 – 37: Speeches by Elihu
o38 – 42: God talking to Job out of whirlwind
Epilogue (prose)
Challenge: Let the Almighty answer and detail the accusation
God’s riposte: Where were you when I laid the earth’s foundation?
God’s last word: Others have not spoken of me what is right, as my servant Job has
In conclusion all is restored to Job, twice as much
ספר איוב
Book of Job is most likely a Hebrew adaptation of an old parable featuring known cultural hero

35. PERSPECTIVES ON JOB
Job and his friends by I.E.Repin (1869)
A Serious Man by Joel & Ethan Coen (2009)
Example of saintly patience?
Demand for justice
 “…The Uncertainty Principle. It proves we can't ever really know... what's going on. So it shouldn't bother you. Not being able to figure anything out… Although you will be responsible for this on the mid-term.”
What happens before the whirlwind appears
Search for reason of suffering
Is it a punishment? test? example?
Who can redeem the suffering?
Maimonides 1135 - 1204
B. Spinoza 1632 - 1677
Franz Kafka
1883 - 1924
C.G. Jung 1875 - 1961
Christ. Jesus Christ
Before the Law
Job kept bond with God. Trial was followed by reward
Job is a book apart in Bible, meaning is universal

36. DIVINE JUSTICE?
Destruction of Leviathan (G. Dore)
NB Story of Job poses first-rate problem only in monotheistic framework (or in godless Universe functioning on set laws)
Dilemma on God: omnipotence vs existence of evil
Problem of Evil: how evil can be justified (or explained)
Θεός + δίκη → Theodicy “justification of God”
G. Leibniz 1646 - 1716
F.M. Dostoyevsky 1821 - 1881
R.P. Warren 1905 - 1989
Alvin Plantinga b. 1932
Free will defense instead of theodicy
„Die beste aller möglichen Welten“
“You have to make the good out of the bad because that is all you have to make it out of.” (novel’s antagonist)
Four takes on problem by four brothers
Cf
Manichaens: Creation by demiurge
Kabbala: Creator stepping back
Buddhism: Suffering is universal

37. PROSPERITY OF WICKED?
← תהילים
“praises” ψαλμοί → “harpings”
Psalterion
King David by J.S. von Carolsfeld
Martin Buber 1878 – 1965 The God directs us to distinguish between the true way and the false ways
Against Generation of the Lie
12 On every side the wicked roam; the shameless are extolled by the children of men
14 All have gone astray; all alike are perverse. … Will these evildoers never learn ? … They would crush the hopes of the poor, but the poor have the LORD as their refuge.
Judgment on Judges:
82 “Divine though you be, offspring of the Most High all of you, Yet like any mortal you shall die; like any prince you shall fall.”
To be near God is my good
73 I saw the prosperity of the wicked For they suffer no pain; … suddenly they are devastated; utterly undone by disaster!
No one does what is good
The lie is the specific evil introduced by man into nature.

38. ECCLESIASTES
קהלת
= Ἐκκλησιαστής → Gatherer, Teacher
Terry Gilliam film (2013) Story of Qohen Leth Living in ruins of church Waiting for his call What his life means?
King Solomon by Gustave Dore
הֲבֵל הֲבָלִים הַכלֹּ הָבֶלּ
Vanity of vanities, all is vanity
1. Everything is meaningless, there is nothing new under the sun
2.Futile: wit, pleasure, folly, labor, knowledge, skill
3.Time for everything. Nothing is better than to enjoy your work
4.Evil under the Sun. Oppression, loneliness, achievement are futile
5.Fulfill your vow to God. Reaches are meaningless
6.Who knows what is good for a person in life?
7.Wisdom is a shelter. Whoever fears God will avoid all extremes
8.Obey the king. Enjoyment of life is the best
9.A common destiny for all. Wisdom is better than folly
10.No one knows what is coming
Attributed to King Solomon. Wisdom: self-contradictory, provoking
11.Invest in many ventures. Remember your Creator while young
12.Fear God and keep his commandments, for God will bring every deed into judgment

39. AVESTA
Indo-Iranian migrations, Vedic and Avestan areas ( BMAC = Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a.k.a. Oxus Culture, ca. 2300 – 1700 BCE )
“Kurgan Hypothesis” of Indo-European expansion
Hittite
Mitanni
Collection of Zoroastrian sacred texts
Language: dialects (Old and New) of the Aryan / East Iranian tongue respectively known as Avestan, becoming sacred with codification of the scripture
Strong parallelism with Vedas
No mention of Persians, Medians, etc.
Yasna: prime liturgical collection
Gathas: hymns attributed to Zarathustra
Cf. Yajna in Vedas
Visprad: ceremony and payers
Vendidad: ecclesiastical code
Fragments of discussions between Ahura Mazda and Zarathustra
Description of evil spirits and ways to deal with them
Social and moral prescriptions
Yasht: twenty-one hymns
Siroza: 30 divinities for days of month

40. ZARATHUSTRA
Zoroaster on “School of Athens” fresco by Rafael (1511)
Yasna Haptanghaiti
Yasna 35
Praise to Ahura and the Immortals. Prayer for the practice and diffusion of the faith
Yasna 36
To Ahura and the Fire
Yasna 37
To Ahura, the holy Creation, the Fravashis of the Just and the Bountiful Immortals
Yasna 38
To the earth and sacred waters
Yasna 39
To the soul of Kine (Auroch cattle)
Yasna 40
Prayer for helpers
Yasna 41
Prayer to Ahura as the King, the Life, and the Rewarder
Avestan prophet who exalted Ahura Mazda (lit. “Radiant Wisdom”) as the supreme uncreated spirit to be worshipped
Attributed the authorship of Gathas, 17 most sacred hymns in Avesta, the core of liturgy and basic tenets:
 Good Thoughts
 Good Words
 Good Deeds
Birthplace unknown, probably BMAC area, or Afghanistan, or East Iran
Traditional dates: ca. VIIth century BCE
Death in legends (and Shahnameh epic) during siege of Balkh in 583 BCE
Pythagorean tradition: astrologer in Babylon and classmate of Pythagoras
In Manichaeism: a major prophet

41. ZOROASTRIANISM & ESCHATOLOGY
ἔσχατος + λογία → “Study of the Final (days)”
Ormuzd vs. Ahriman (Ahura Mazda vs Angra Mainyu)
Zoroastrian Empires
Persian Achaemenid
550 – 330 BCE
Parthian (partial)
247 BCE – 224 CE
Persian Sassanid
224 – 651 CE
Ahura Mazda is wise, good, benevolent, creator / sustainer of the Truth, guardian of Justice; aid of man, though not omnipotent
Angra Mainyu is hostile spirit and source of evil, creator of malevolent forces, source if sin and misery
Gathas profess reverence to ahuras and rejection of devas
Truth / Righteousness (Asha) opposes Lie / Disorder (Druj), i.e. universe is a struggle of order against chaos
Free will: active life thru good deeds is imperative
Proscription of slavery
?Panentheistic or pantheistic faith?
Faravahar symbol
Water and Fire purification
At end of time Savior will bring final renovation of the world

42. CYRUS THE GREAT
Son of Cambyses I ruler of Anshan, inherited the kingdom in 559
Building the Empire:
Hyrba 552 BCE
Pasargadae 550 BCE
Reputation of liberator, law-giver, and builder
Cyrus II : ca. 600 – 530 BCE
Street sign in Haifa:
commemoration of 538 BCE edict
Cyrus cylinder in British Museum: Babylonian propaganda and a source of multiple false translations
Sardis 546 BCE
Opis 539 BCE
No evidence of specific religion
Granting limited/local autonomies
Ending the Exile (Cf. Book of Ezra)

43. CAMBYSES II
Son of Cyrus the Great
Reigned as King of Kings 530 – 522 BCE
Conquest of Egypt ca 525 BCE
XXVIIth dynasty: Persian rule over Egypt
Failures in Kush and Libya
“The Lost Army of King Cambyses” documentary : near Siwa Oasis
Cambyses at Pelusium by Paul Marie Lenoir (1872)
Conflicting stories of death
Empire in turmoil:
Bardiya / Smerdis – half-brother, usurper, impostor?
Interregnum of several month
Accusations of Magian rebellion
Ascension of Darius I in 522 BCE

44. DARIUS I
Descendant of Achaemenes, married Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great
Reign 522 – 486 BCE
Empire at maximal extent
Division into provinces and appointments of satraps
Evidence of Zoroastrian adherence:
Relief in Persepolis
Golden daric
95.83 % pure
8.4 gram
Behistun Inscription (Western Iran)
Completion of Persepolis
Economic organization
Red sea canal
Subjugation of Macedonia, Thracia, and invasion of Greece
Defeat of army: Marathon (490 BCE)

45. XERXES I
Son of Darius I the Great and grandson of Cyrus II the Great, born 519 BCE
Reign 486 – 465 BCE
Crushing of revolts in Egypt and Babylon
Second invasion of Greece: Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea
Murdered by conspired officials
Succeeded by son Artaxerxes I
Main protagonist in many works of fiction, including
The Persians by Aeschylus (472 BCE)
Creation by Gore Vidal (1981)
Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther
by R.H. van Rijn (1660)
מגילת אסתר
Biblical connection: Book of Esther, Purim holiday

46. OUR SOURCES
Ἡρόδοτος 484 – 425 BCE
“Persian youths, between five and twenty are instructed in three things : to ride a horse, to draw a bow, and to speak the Truth”
ἱστορία = “inquiry”
Κτησίας
5th century BCE
Physician at Persian Court for 17 years
Used the archives
Wrote in Ionic Greek
Ξενοφῶν
430 – 354 BCE
Student of Socrates
Author of Anabasis
Cyropaedia is a model treatise on educating the prince

47. ACHAEMENID EMPIRE
Amalgamation of all historical (from Bronze Age) civilizations in Near and Middle East
Empire of new type (multi-state)
Ca. 50 million inhabitants (480 BCE)
Capitals:
Pasargadae
Babylon
Susa
Ecbatana
Postal service
Royal roads
The Immortals (October 1971)
The greatest Empire in history with 44% of world population?
(Guinness Book of Records)

48. PERSEPOLIS
The ceremonial capital of Achaemenids for 200 years
Burials of Kings of Kings
Site of 2500 years’ jubilee celebrations
UNESCO WHS (1979)
Near Gate of All Nations
Tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae
Faravahar Relief

49. FALL OF ACHAEMENID EMPIRE
Alexander the Great
356 – 323 BCE
Ascended as King of Macedonia in 336 BCE
Conquest of the known world:
Granicus 334 BCE
Issus 333 BCE
Tyre 332 BCE
Gaugamela 331 BCE
Persepolis 330 BCE
Reconstruction of Alexander
mosaic from Pompeii
Darius III (reign 336 – 330 BCE) was the last Achaemenid King of Kings

50. SUMMARY
from Alexander (2004)
Iron Age in 1st millennium BCE saw development of multiple advanced cultures interacting on many levels
Zoroastrianism was a major influence on genesis of world religions
Bible became foundation of Abrahamic monotheism
Empire of Cyrus the Great was a multinational state that unified all ancient civilizations in Near and Middle East

51. IN THE NEXT CHAPTER
After the dark period: from village to polis
Homer and Hesiod
Archaic Greece
Olympic games
Solon and his reforms
Athenian Democracy
Persian invasions
Peloponnesian War
The Philosophers
The Dramatists
Macedonian expansion and Alexander the Great
Hellenistic World

52. Thank You