The document discusses various approaches to literary criticism. It begins by defining literary criticism as the evaluation, analysis and interpretation of literature. It then describes several major approaches: 1) Formalism examines the intrinsic elements of a text like style, structure and imagery. 2) Cultural criticism analyzes how works reflect and influence culture. 3) Psychological criticism applies theories like Freudian analysis to understand characters' hidden motives. 4) New Historicism interprets works in the context of the time period in which they were written or set. The document provides brief overviews of numerous other approaches including feminism, Marxism, reader-response, post-colonial, deconstruction, ecoc

1. Benha University
Faculty of Arts
English Department : 4th Grade
Compiled by :
Muhammad Sabry Abd-ElHady

2. What do we mean by literary criticism?
• Literary criticism is the evaluation, analysis and interpretation of a
piece of literature. That is the technical, academic explanation.
Essentially, it is a means of describing how a piece of literature
moves the reader. There are several literary criticism
theories, dating back from 360 B.C .to the present, with just a few
of the major modern ones. For all its shortcomings, literary
criticism still provides the poet with the tools for self-evaluation
and self-improvement. It introduces work of periods and cultures
different in theme and treatment.
• Literary criticism comes in various shapes and aims. At best it
poses searching questions of the writer, and insists that he
understands how the arts, the sciences and philosophy have
different but coexisting concepts of truth and meaning. Art in the
end cannot be divorced from contemporary life, and that
consideration leads on to literary theory.
•

3. Literary theory
• Literary theory in a strict sense is the systematic study of
the nature of literature and of the methods for analyzing
literature. However, literary scholarship since the 19th
century often includes—in addition to, or even instead of
literary theory in the strict sense—considerations of
intellectual history, moral philosophy, social prophecy, and
other interdisciplinary themes which are of relevance to
the way humans interpret meaning In humanities in
modern academia, the latter style of scholarship is an
outgrowth of critical theory and is often called simply
"theory.” As a consequence, the word "theory" has become
an umbrella term for a variety of scholarly approaches to
reading texts. Many of these approaches are informed by
various strands of Continental philosophy and sociology.

4. Here
• What are the approaches of criticism?
Traditional approach
New Criticism/Formalism Deconstruction Theory
Cultural approach
Psychological approach Eco-Criticism
Feminism
Anthropological
Structuralism
Marxism Biographical
Reader-Response Criticism
Narratological
Post-Colonial Criticism
New Historicism Semiotics

5. Traditional approach
• Though perhaps Edwardian in style, this approach — essentially one of
trying to broaden understanding and appreciation — is still used in general
surveys of English literature. There is usually some information on the
writer and his times, and a little illustration, but no close analysis of the
individual work or its aims.
• Traditional criticism would like to reflect upon the way a literary text deals
with ethical issues of human behaviour, the moral question also in its
social angularities. It also explores the philosophical function of literature
i.e. how it looks at the human condition, questions of mortality, psychic
and social processes, the human temperament and so on. Important
critics in this tradition will be Bradley, the Shakespeare-
stalwart, F.R.Leavis, the Marxists critics--Raymond Williams and so on.
• The traditional criticism approach examines you examine how the
author’s life, his/her biographical information, contemporary times and
effect of his life circumstances on his inspiration and their reflection in
his works.

6. Formalism
• Formalism is a school of literary criticism and literary theory having
mainly to do with structural purposes of a particular text.
• This approach regards literature as “a unique form of human
knowledge that needs to be examined on its own terms.” All the
elements necessary for understanding the work are contained
within the work itself. Of particular interest to the formalist critic
are the elements of form—style, structure, tone, imagery, etc.—
that are found within the text. A primary goal for formalist critics is
to determine how such elements work together with the text’s
content to shape its effects upon readers.
• The formalist approach: literary analysis: what the work means
(theme) and how it conveys its meaning (style); the relation of
theme to style. Good work is one that is interesting because it
conveys meaning in an interesting way, an intriguing way to say the
"same old thing" (Pope: "True wit is Nature to advantage dressed. . .")

7. Formalism
• New Criticism arose in opposition to biographical or vaguely impressionistic
approaches
• It sought to establish literary studies as an objective discipline
• Its desire to reveal organic unity in complex texts may be historically
determined, reflective of early 20th century critics seeking a lost order or in
conflict with an increasingly fragmented society
• Assumptions Texts possess meaning in and of themselves; therefore, analyses
should emphasize intrinsic meaning over extrinsic meaning (verbal sense over
significance in E.D. Hirsch's view)
• The best readers are those who look most closely at the text and are familiar with
literary conventions and have an ample command of the language
• Meaning within the text is context-bound. This means that readers must be ready
to show how the parts of the text relate to form a whole.
• The test of excellence in literature: the extent to which the work manifests organic
unity
• The best interpretations are those which seek out ambiguities in the text and then
resolve these ambiguities as a part of demonstrating the organic unity of the text

8. Cultural approach
• In combating old definitions of what constitutes culture, of
course, cultural critics sometimes end up combating old definitions
of what constitutes the literary canon, that is, the once-agreed-
upon honor roll of Great Books. They tend to do
so, however, neither by adding books (and movies and television
sitcoms) to the old list of texts that every "culturally literate" person
should supposedly know, nor by substituting for it some kind of
Counterculture Canon. Rather, they tend to combat the canon by
critiquing the very idea of canon. Cultural critics want to get us
away from thinking about certain works as the "best" ones
produced by a given culture (and therefore as the novels that best
represent American culture). They seek to be more descriptive and
less evaluative, more interested in relating than rating cultural
products and events.

9. Psychological approach
• Using the theories of a particular psychoanalytic thinker
(Freud, Adler, Jung, Lacan), these critics see the text as if it were a kind of dream.
This means that the text hides, represses its real content behind manifest
content. Dream work involves (Freud) condensation, displacement. The
interpreter must make his or her way through the literal level to the symbolic
import, the meaning the writer cannot say overtly because it would be too
painful. As one critic puts it, "a psychological criticism notices patterns of
language beneath the surface and understands the verbal play as if the text were
a patient recalling more than she/he realizes." (Schwarz 116)
• Such a critic may:
• See the text as an expression of the secret, repressed life of its author, explaining
the textual features as symbolic of psychological struggles in the writer. This was
popular before 1950 and is termed psychobiography. Such a critic more often
used Freudian theory as a theoretical templates.
• Look not to the author but to characters in the text, applying psychoanalytical
theory to explain their hidden motives or psychological makeup. Such a critic
might use theoretical templates such as Freudian, Adlerian, Lacanian
psychoanalysis, among others.
• Look at ways in which specific readers reveal their own obsessions, neuroses, etc.
as they read a particular text. Holland's Five Readers Reading exemplifies this
approach. This would be an example in which Reader-Response (subjective type)
critics use psychoanalysis in their interpretations.

10. Feminism
• Feminist Criticism analyzes text through the lens of how women have
historically been portrayed in literature. It examines the political, social
and economic subjugation of women in society. It further looks at how the
characters, the dialogue, the events and resolution of a piece of literature
can serve to either reinforce or challenge stereotypical representations of
women.
• Feminist Criticism examine works by and about women. Gender Criticism
evolved out of feminism to address issues of masculinity/femininity as
binaries, sexual orientation, heterosexism, and differences in sexes. Both
are political activities concerned with fair representation and treatment of
people. A critic using Feminist Studies or Gender Studies (sometimes also
known as Queer Studies) might ask, "How is gender constructed or
deconstructed in this text? Is the view of the text gendered or sexist?"
• Feminist criticism is concerned with the impact of gender on writing and
reading. It usually begins with a critique of patriarchal culture. It is
concerned with the place of female writers in the cannon. Finally, it
includes a search for a feminine theory or approach to texts. Feminist
criticism is political and often revisionist. Feminists often argue that male
fears are portrayed through female characters. They may argue that
gender determines everything, or just the opposite: that all gender
differences are imposed by society, and gender determines nothing.

11. Structuralism
• The structural critical analysis studies
symmetry, trends and patterns for a particular society
or for a societal comparative analysis. of various
societies. underlying patterns of symmetry which are
held to be common to all societies. Corroboration is
drawn from sociology and anthropology, and the study
techniques categorize and evaluate the work in larger
context rather than assessing its quality alone.
• Structuralism: Structuralists view literature as a system
of signs. They try to make plain the organizational
codes that they believe regulate all literature. The
most famous practitioner is Michael Foucault.

12. Marxism
• Marxism is concerned with labor practices, class
theories, and economics, especially as concerned with
the struggles of the poor and oppressed. A Marxist
might ask, "How are classes stratified/defined in this
text? Does this text reflect an economic ideology?
What is the attitude toward labor furthered by this
text?“
• In case of the Marxist critical analysis, poetry is
analyzed on the basis of its political correctness and
calls for mention of support for workers against
capitalist exploitation and perils of free market perils.

13. Reader-Response Criticism
• Reader-Response Criticism is about interpreting a piece of literature
not solely on the merits of the piece of literature but rather as an
interaction between the reader and the piece of literature. The
reader's reaction, how the piece affects the reader, is taken into
consideration when interpreting a piece. Essentially what this
theory means is that the text itself has meaning and the interaction
between the reader and the text also carries meaning. The
interpretation in Reader-Response Criticism lies between the
intersection of these two sets of meaning when evaluating a text.
•
Reader-Response Criticism: Studies the interaction of reader with
text, holding the text as incomplete until it is read. This critical
approach can be, and often is, combined with other approaches
(such as Psychoanalytical and Historical) but challenges the self-
contained focus of New Criticism or the claim of meaninglessness
embraced by Post-Structuralism.

14. Post-Colonial Criticism
• Post-Colonial Criticism examines works written by
colonial powers and its subjects. Post-Colonial
Criticism considers many lenses through which to
evaluate a piece---including
politics, power, culture, language and religion. A
seminal piece often used in teaching this theory
is Chinua Achebe's "Things Fall Apart," about his
native Nigeria's experience of colonialism. This
theory fleshes out what it means to be colonized
on a social level, and even more closely, on an
individual level, exploring how colonialism shapes
and affects identity.

15. New Historicism
• For New Historicists, a piece of literature is shaped by the time period in which it
was written and thus must be examined and interpreted in the context of that
time period. This theory attempts to tie the characters, events and language in a
piece of literature to events from the time period in which it was written. It also
looks at mainstream and marginalized populations as well as traditional and
subversive discourses of the era when interpreting a text. New Historicists also
take into consideration political and cultural events that the author lived through.
All of these various pieces, along with the time period the piece of literature is set
in, are part of the interpretation process for New Historicists.
• (New) Historicism: May approach a text from numerous perspectives, but all
perspectives tend to reflect a concern with the period in which a text is produced
and/or read (including contemporary work). No "history" can be truly objective or
comprehensive because history is constantly written and rewritten;
however, studying the historical context of a work, particularly in contrast with
that in which it is read, can illuminate our biases and hopefully enable us to
understand the text (and the culture, context, ourselves) better. New Historicism is
concerned with relating the idea of a text to other key concepts:
culture, discourse, ideology, the self, and history. New Historicists examine
intersections of text, reader, and history and with a special emphasis on literature
as a cultural text. New Historicists also examine the relationship of literature to the
power structures of society.

16. Deconstruction Theory
• Deconstruction Theory is about shifting the center of a piece from
the author outward, to the reader and the piece's deeper meaning
for society. It removes the author as the authoritative voice on a
piece to those reading and interpreting the piece. In this vein, it has
much in common with Reader-Response Criticism. Where this
theory differs from other theories is that it looks at a very unique
aspect of a text---it analyzes what was left out of a text and how
that influences the piece as much as what was actually written into
a piece.
• This approach assumes that language does not refer to any external
reality. It can assert several, contradictory interpretations of one
text. Deconstructionists make interpretations based on the political
or social implications of language rather than examining an author's
intention. Jacques Derrida was the founder of this school of
criticism.

17. Eco-Criticism
• Ecocriticism is the study of literature and environment from an interdisciplinary point of view
where all sciences come together to analyze the environment and brainstorm possible solutions for
the correction of the contemporary environmental situation. Ecocriticism was officially heralded by
the publication of two seminal works,[ both published in the mid-1990s: The Ecocriticism
Reader, edited by Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm, and The Environmental Imagination, by
Lawrence Buell.
• In the United States, eco-criticism is often associated with the Association for the Study of
Literature and Environment (ASLE),[ which hosts biennial meetings for scholars who deal with
environmental matters in literature. ASLE publishes a journal—Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature
and Environment (ISLE)—in which current American scholarship can be found.
• Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach that is known by a number of other
designations, including "green (cultural) studies", "ecopoetics", and "environmental literary
criticism".
• Eco-criticism as an academic discipline began in earnest in the 1990s, although its roots go back to
the late 1970s. Because it is a new area of study, scholars are still engaged in defining the scope and
aims of the subject. Cheryll Glotfelty, one of the pioneers in the field, has defined eco-criticism as
“the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment,” and Laurence
Buell says that this study must be “conducted in a spirit of commitment to environmentalist praxis.”
David Mazel declares it is the analysis of literature “as though nature mattered.” This study, it is
argued, cannot be performed without a keen understanding of the environmental crises of modern
times and thus must inform personal and political actions; it is, in a sense, a form of activism. Many
critics also emphasize the interdisciplinary nature of the enquiry, which is informed by ecological
science, politics, ethics, women's studies, Native American studies, and history, among other
academic fields. The term “eco-criticism” was coined in 1978 by William Rueckert in his essay
“Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism.” Interest in the study of nature writing and
with reading literature with a focus on “green” issues grew through the 1980s, and by the early
1990s eco-criticism had emerged as a recognizable discipline within literature departments of
American universities.

18. Anthropological
• Tends to focus on aspects of everyday life in various cultures (i.e.
folklore, ritual, celebrations, traditions). You might ask, "What is the
everyday social function of this text? How has it been transmitted
(orally/written)? Does it reflect
• Central Sociological/Anthropological Questions:
• What sort of society does the author describe? (How is it set
up? What rules are there? What happens to people who break
them? Who enforces the rules?)
• What does the writer seem to like or dislike about this society?
• What changes do you think the writer would like to make in the
society? And how can you tell?
• What sorts of pressures does the society put on its members? How
do the members respond to this pressure?
• folk culture?"

19. Biographical
• Relates the author's life and thoughts to her works. As these tend
to reflect the period in which she lived, biographical criticism may
be an important aspect of the (New) Historical approach (see
below). The biographical approach allows one to better understand
elements within a work, as well as to relate works to authorial
intention and audience. You might ask, "How does the text reflect
the author's life? Is this text an extension of the author's position
on issues in the author's life?"
• Biographical criticism has two weaknesses that should be avoided.
First, avoid equating the work's content with the author's life (or
the character with the author); they are not necessarily the same.
Second, avoid less-than-credible sources of information, particularly
works that tend to be highly speculative or controversial unless
verified by several sources. (Some of the recent biographies on
Thomas Jefferson might serve as an example of this pitfall.)

20. Narratological
• Concerns itself with the structure of narrative--
how events are constructed and through what
point of view. You might ask, "How is the
narrative of this work (fiction, poetry, film) pieced
together? Who or what is narrating?" This
considers the narrator not necessarily as a
person, but more as a window through which one
sees a constructed reality. This can range from
someone telling a tale to a seemingly objective
camera: "To what extent is the narrative
mediated?"

21. Semiotics
• Critiques the use of language, preferably in texts
that comment on the nature of language (see
Structuralism). To the semiotician, language is an
arbitrary but shared system of assigned
meanings. You might ask, "How does this text
critique language? Does it break the rules of
language usage? Why?" Or if the text doesn't
seem to comment on its own language, "How
does the language used reflect an unawareness
of language as an ideological tool?"

22. Where do theories fall
Theories Chart
psychological
beyond the world
real world
audience
work itself
authour's life
authour's world