1. PRELIMINARY NOTIONS
Linguistics is the scientific study of a language in general
and of languages in particular dealing with their
history, nature-approaches, grammar-rules, structure-
syntax, sounds-phonology, meaning systems-
semantics, semiotics, pragmatics, and so on as a
system of human communication and from an internal
point of view.

2. LINGUISTICS BACKGROUND
• The word Linguistics was firstly used in the middle of the
19th century to emphasize the difference between a newer
approach to the study of a language that was then
developing and the more traditional approach of philology.
• Philology: also know as Comparative Philology or Historial
Linguistics.It is a branch of linguistics that studies language
change and language relationship.
- Jacob Grimm Had reconstructured what appeared to
- Franz Bopp be the Proto-Indo-European
- August Schleicher language.

3. OTHER DISCIPLINES
Studies how dialects differ between groups separated by certain
Sociolinguistics: social variables such as ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of
education, age and so on.
Is a discipline concerned with relations between messages and
Psycholinguistics: the characteristics of individual who select and interpret them.
It is also know as natural language procesing, NPL, it is a
Computational Linguistics: branch of artificial intelligence.
It deals with the relation ship between language and
Anthropological Linguistics: culture.
It focuses on the functions of language in our societies,
Socio-ethnic-Linguistics: especially characterized by the deep differences of class,
ethnicity, gender and generation.
It provides the theorical and descriptive foundations for the investigación
Applied Linguistics: And solution of language-related problems, especially those of language
Education.

4. CONTRASTIVE OR COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS
It is possible to refer to the study, contrast or comparasion
Of two or more language structures, whose subject matter
Is more specific.
Comparative Linguistics. Contrastive Linguistics.
Genetic relateddness implies a common Certainly studies, analyses, and compares
Origin or photo-language, and comparative Two or more languages descriptively in order
Linguistics aims to construction language To find out similarities and differences among
Families, to reconstruction proto-languages Them during the language learning process.
And specify the changes that have resulted
In the documented language.

5. BASIS FOR TEACHING CONTRASTIVE
Students of applied linguistics intending to teach a
Foreign language such as English, French, Italian, Spanish
And so on as it is their concern.Since MT interference
Accounts for some 30% of erros to understand language
Transfer mechanisms in such a way as to be able to devise
Materials and learning activities that control them is important.
Contrastive Linguistics Syllabus: The exposition of CL proceeds level by level, and the
traditional three levels provide ample scope.
- LEXIS, - SOUND, - SYNTAX.
Contrstive Pragmatic: the ability to understand another speakers intended meaning is
called pragmatic competence.
Methodology of Contrastive Linguistics: In principle, every difference or similitary between
two or more related languages should be explicable
in terms of isolation or context analysis.
Contrastive Analysis Method: is especially associated with applied contrastive studies
advocated as a means of predicting or explaining difficultes
of L2 learners with a partiular mother tongue in learning a
particular target language.

6. New Trends: Although Lado(1957) included a comparison of cultures, early contrastive studies
focused on what has been described as microlinguistic contrastive analysis
(James 1980: 61): phonology, grammar, lexis.
The role of Corpora: is a body of text, utterances, or other specimens considered more or less
reprsentative of a language.
LANGUAGE
An arbitrary structured system of utterances-sounds, gestures,
Sings, and movements, written symbols, morphemes, words and
Sentences used for human communication.
Most Spoken Language Population
of the World
1.- Mandarin
2.- Hindi
3.- English
4.- Arabic
5.- Spanish

7. BRIEF CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES
People communicate in endless ways due to the vast places they
Live in and accordingly to their lifestyles; consequently, abundant
Variations of languages have arisen. These language are classified
Into verbal spoken-and non verbal-written and mimic.
Verbal Language Non Verbal Language
Languages might be classified as follows:
Written or symbolic language
-Language Family
- Individual Language
- Living Languages
Idiographic Written Syllabic Writter
- Extinct languages
- Ancient languages
Use idiograms symbols Use symbols, but syllable
- Constructured languages
by syllable
- Dialect
Ej:
- Language Intelligibility
- Idiolect Alphabetic Written
- Jargon
- Colloquialism Sound pronuncition
- Slang Use alphabetic symbols
Suach as spanish and english letters.

8. ARTICULATED LANGUAGE
Writing systems are based on alphabets whose standard correct spellings have
Little to do with how words are pronounced.
English Language Spanish Language
Considered Spoken a first language second language speakers
Third or fourth largest 352 million 417 million
Native language In Latin America and Spain
In the wold
Spanish
Spoken
Romance
First language in the: United States,
India, Nigeria, United Kinddom, Indo Europea
Philippines, Canada, Australia,
Ireland, New Zeland.

9. LANGUAGE INCONSISTENCIES
It is the incompatibility, It is the quality or state of being inconsistent,
Lack of concordance with a structural pattern.
These inconsistencies happen due to: 1,2,3.
1.- The same letter or letters combinaton can be refer to different sounds.
2.- The same sound can have with different letters or letter combinations.
3.- Different dialect pronounce the same word differently.

10. CLUSTERS
Group
Symbols
Orthographic Phonemic
Vowels and Consinants
Vowel Cluster Consonant Cluster
This deals with the pronunciation Is a group or sequence of consonants that appear
That students give to synthetic word Together in a syllable without a vowel between
Containing orthographic vowel-cluster them.
And analyzes the observed pronuncintions It is important to distinguish between consonant
In relation to common English words containing clusters and diagraphs with which they are often
The same vowel clusters. confused. In Contrast to a consonant cluster, a
diagraph is a group of two or more symbols which
really stand for just one sound.

11. INITIAL CLUSTERS
Spanish English French
1.- CCV a) /p,b,k,g,f/ /l/ /ɾ/
/ɹ/
b) /p,t,k,b,d,g,f/ R- sound /ʁ/
liquants liquid
/ɵɹ/
/ʃɹ/
/sk/
/stɹ/ /stʁ/
2.- CCCV /spl/
/spl/
/skɹ/ /skʁ/
/spɹ/ /spʁ/

12. MIDDLE CLUSTERS
SPANISH ENGLISH FRENCH
VCCV
VCCCV
VCCCCV
VCCCCCV
Intrasyllabic Intersyllabic
Inside between

13. FINAL CLUSTERS
ENGLISH SPANISH FRENCH
VCC
VCCC
VCCCC
ENGLISH: 1.- 3ps
2.- plural nouns
3.- possesive nouns

14. PHONOLOGY
Know as phonemics is the study of the system of phonemes of a language,
Although some conceptualize phonology as encompassing far more than
Sound segments. Thus, phonology can be used as a mora detailet term
Subsuming phonetics. The phonologycal system is based on Phonemics
And Phonetics.
PHONEMICS PHONETICS
It studies the relevant, It is study and description of the speech
distinctive and significant sounds made by the human voice.
elements in a language Articulatory phonetics focuses on the
which are used to establish Human vocal apparatus and describes
difference in meaning. the sounds in terms of the vocal
Tract.
To represent phonemes in
Writing, the phonologycal It is often denoted in linguistics by the
Symbols are to be written use od dicaritics added to the
Between Slant Lines. Phonetic symbols and then placed
in square brackets.

15. ALPHABET
It is system of characters arranged in a fixed conventional order to
Symbolize sounds or letter used in a writing system to represent
Speech. It´s name comes from alpha beta, the first two letters of the Greek alphabet.
THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (IPA)
There are as many transcription conventions as dictionaries and readers necessities.
This implies having almost the same problems as ordinary orthohraphy. Standard
Orthography of many languages does not correspond to the sounds pronounced when
They are spoken. Phonetitians and linguists use a phonetic alphabet which has been
Designed to represent all the possible sounds of the world languages in a standard way.

16. TRANSCRIPTION
It is a system of notation that represents utterances or partial utterrances
Of a language pronounced by people in general.
Broad transcription Narrow Transcription
It is the notation that represents utterrances It is a notation that represents variants of
Of language by indicating only the significant and A specific phoneme. It captures as many
Underlying sounds that make up a word As possible details which are represented
By the diacritics provided in the IPA. It is
Written between square brackets. It is also
Named as Phonetic Transcription.

17. SYMBOLS USED FOR TRANSCRIPTION
Strees mark ´
Angle brackets
Slant brackets / /
Square brackets
Vertical line
Division marker .
Diacritics