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Second language acquisition   1




        NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY

         Second Language Acquisition and the

Effectiveness of Different Methods of Studying Languages

               A Thesis Submitted to the

              University Honors Program

               In Partial Fulfillment of the

       Requirements of the Baccalaureate Degree

              With Upper Division Honors

                     Department of

                       Psychology

                           By

                    Gina M. Martino

                    DeKalb, Illinois

                      May 09, 2009
Second language acquisition     2


         The United States is far behind most countries when it comes to second language

acquisition. In the US, students are not typically required to learn a second language until the

High School grade level. Even after completing the required language programs though,

students are unable to apply what they have learned. In most European countries, students

begin learning second languages early on in school and most individuals, child or adult, are

able to effectively communicate in their second language if not also in a third and fourth. In

Canada, almost all of the provinces have total immersion programs set-up (Cohen & Swain,

1976).

         In the past, knowing a second language, at least from the American perspective, may

not have been as important. The United States is a large country, where practically everyone

spoke English, and there was little demand for individuals to learn additional languages. In

today's society however, things are a little different. First of all, the minority population is

growing larger by the day. It is helpful to know an additional language just to have the

ability to communicate with these individuals. Secondly, and probably more pressing reason

for individuals to learn another language, is that businesses need to communicate with the

minorities in the US as well as conduct trade with other countries. The job market is

becoming more and more competitive and companies are looking for people who are able to

do more. With this, they are looking to hire individuals who are fluent in both English and at

least one additional language. Many times, if a person does not know a second language,

they will be considered under qualified for a position and be passed over for a bilingual

individual who might be less qualified in every other way.

         Most people realize at this point that learning a second language is crucial, but for

some reason, the United States has yet to significantly increase language programs. In turn,

people who wish to learn a language after or outside of the public school system are forced to
Second language acquisition      3


find ulterier methods. There are so many different options for language acquisition though,

and not all are effective.

       One of the most available methods to learning a second language comes in the form of

books. A trip to a local bookstore will present an individual with dozens of different books

on almost any language. There are books that specialize in learning verbs, books on

vocabulary, and books that take the reader through a general overview. Books may be

effective for some people, and are great supplemental materials for students studying through

other methods or just brushing up on a language they have not used in a while, but for the

individual who needs a more interactive method, books are very dry and can be difficult to

decipher.

       A step up from books is audio programs. Audio programs could refer to cassette

tapes, CD’s, and the newly popular mp3 programs that can be downloaded onto iPods and

other MP3 players. There are many audio programs that advertise that a person can learn a

language in their car, or on the flight to another country, but the programs are rarely, if ever,

that effective. First of all, audio programs are commonly not entirely audio based but rather

come with a book that the student should follow along with or consult for vocabulary words

and such. Also, languages are much too complex to learn in the few hours that these audio

programs often advertise. Like books, audio programs are a great supplement to other

language instruction, but alone they are only minimally effective.

       With the more recent popularity of the iPod and podcasts, there are many podcasts

which are concerned with language acquisition. Some of these are very basic and give the

listener a few vocabulary words with each episode, while others go more in depth and even

give the listener bits of cultural information. These still however fall into the audio category.

       With technology at the forefront of today's society, probably the most popular way for

individuals to learn a foreign language is with computer programs. Computer assisted
Second language acquisition       4


language learning is now very commonly used in language instruction to provide

supplemental practice in various skills, but computer programs are also very popular with

individuals who are unable or unwilling to enroll in a classroom language course. The most

prevalent ones on the market now-a-days are Instant Immersion (by Topics Entertainment),

Learn Now! (by Transparent Language), and of course Rosetta Stone (by Fairfield Language

Technologies). Each of these programs utilizes various teaching methods and varying levels

of immersion. The most popular of the three, Rosetta Stone, is surprisingly also the most

simplistic, using matching exercises as the focus of the program. These matching exercises

use pictures only, which many people see as a problem, with the preference being for

programs that use various multimedia methods. Another large oversight on the part of most,

if not all computer programs, is a lack of exercises requiring users to work with material

longer than a sentence in length (Traphagan).

       While computer programs offer a consistency that instructors often like, this is only if

every student uses the program in the same way. Beyond the control of the program

designers, is how the student uses the exercises and tools made available by a given program.

In programs that give the user control of which exercises they do or do not complete, a

student may skip an exercise they need simply because they do not enjoy it. One tool that is

likely to be ignored is the option of the user recording their voice to compare it with that of a

native speaker’s voice. Often times computers do not have microphones already installed and

individuals either cannot afford, or do not take the effort to go purchase a separate

microphone. Even once a separate microphone is acquired, they can be complicated to install

and make work and people will just give up. Other included features are often overlooked as

well. If a program has a help option, or a spell-check option, certain students may take

advantage of this while others choose not to (Chapelle, 1990).
Second language acquisition        5


       Despite what companies have produced thus far in language acquisition, the

classroom environment is still generally more effective. Unlike books, audio programs, or

computer programs, a classroom environment allows for feedback from an instructor and

interaction with other students who are typically at an equal level. However the effectiveness

of a language program depends upon factors that determine the effectiveness of any

classroom. The most important element to determine the effectiveness of a class is the

instructor. While it is hoped that all instructors are effective, there are still teachers out there

who give very little instruction, or give instruction in only one manner (i.e. lecture). Many

students need more interactive methods to learn material, therefore the most effective

instructors use lectures, visual aids, computer programs, reading, and pretty much any other

way they can think of to expose the student to their target foreign language. The other large

drawback to classroom language acquisition is that, as stated previously, the United States

still puts little emphasize on language programs. Most high schools have language programs,

but not many junior highs or elementary schools have any language programs in place. In

addition, once a student reaches the high school level, there are not always a lot of options for

which language they can choose. The most popular languages taught in United States

schools are Spanish and French, but students may desire a chance to learn a different

language, such as Italian, Japanese, German, and other languages. Even if a school has

programs in various languages, it is often difficult to sign up for a course.

       For example, Northern Illinois University has programs in 18 different languages

including: Arabic, Burmese, Chinese, French, German, Hebrew, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese,

Korean, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Southeast Asian, Spanish, Swahili, Tagalog, and Thai.

However, for Spanish, there are usually at least two to three sections available for every level,

every semester. For most of the languages however, there is one section for each level, and

certain classes are only offered certain semesters. The Italian program for instance, might
Second language acquisition     6


have three sections of Italian 101 available, but the 101 and 201 levels are only offered in the

fall while the 102 and 202 levels are only offered in the spring. Then, the classes narrow

significantly as the student advances in the language. In the 2006-2007 academic year, there

were three sections of Italian in the 100-level, but the following fall there was only one

section of Italian 201. If the average class has 30 students in it, this meant that 60 students

were unable to continue into a second year with the Italian language. For the 300 and 400-

level classes, there is only one section available as well, but now this one section is only

offered every couple years. It might be argued that there is not enough interest in the

language to provide more sections, but from an insider’s perspective, there are always

students who are wishing to continue with the language and are unable to. In the fall of 2008,

three students were forced to take a 300 or 400 level course as an independent study because

the courses they needed to complete their chosen minor in the Italian language would not be

offered again before they graduated.

       Even when a student makes use of every option to take a language class, one can only

learn so much in a one hour class offered two to three days a week. Another alternative to

classroom language acquisition is partial immersion. Partial immersion is when schools

structure classes in and through the second language. Many researchers believe that language

is better developed when the language itself is not the primary focus of the classroom or the

content the student is being graded on (Short, 1993, as cited in Christian, 1996; Snow, Met, &

Genesee, 1989). This is likely because it takes the pressure off of the individual to perfect the

language and turns it into a tool to communicate. An example of this is the Elgin program in

Ontario. This school program uses the second language, French for the first two and a half

hours of the day (including the subjects Mathematics, Music, French Language Arts, Reading,

and Composition), and English for the last two and a half hours of the day (including English

Language Arts, Physical Education, Science, Social Studies, Art, and Health). When the
Second language acquisition    7


Barik and Swain (1976) compared the Elgin programs effectiveness in learning a second

language with the normal language classroom, the results were not very promising in the first

few years, but the higher grade levels showed better results, suggesting that while partial

immersion was difficult at first, as students adjusted it was more effective.

       Generally the languages are kept separate from each other by either subjects (Math

and Science in one language while Reading and Composition are in the other), time of day

(one language in the morning, the other language in the afternoon), or by specific teachers

(one teacher teaches everything in one language while another teaches in the other language)

(Christian, 1996). Also, while there may be use of both languages during the classroom

environment, children do not tend to switch to the second language on the playground when

they are free to use either language (Lee, Hill-Bonnet, & Gillispie, 2008). In this students

often continue to keep friends of the same native language and are less likely to interact with

native speakers of the second language which removes the opportunity to interact socially in

their second language entirely. Another important factor that contributes to the effectiveness

of these programs is that the instruction methods that are effective in normal schools

(activities vs. lecture) are also effective with partial immersion schools (Christian, 1996).

       One very important distinction to make here is that these are immersion programs, not

submersion. Submersion is what many students encounter when they first move to the

United States. ESL programs are generally taught entirely in English and contain students

from all different language backgrounds. Then, ESL students are thrown into the schools

normal curriculum and surrounded by native English speakers who they fear will tease them

and ridicule them for their imperfect knowledge of the language. The more insecure the

student feels in using the language, the less likely they are to do so which will inhibit their

development.
Second language acquisition    8


            As the need for a globalized workforce increases, the demand for students to study

abroad has become a growing trend in higher education, showing a 250 percent increase in

the number of United States students completing study abroad programs from 1995 up until

now (Krisantas, 2005 as cited in Lowe, Dozier, Hunt-Hurst, & Smith, 2008). While the

opportunity to study abroad is an invaluable experience that can be exciting and life altering,

it is also very frightening and overwhelming. Individuals who submerse themselves in a

foreign culture frequently experience some degree of emotional disturbance (Mumford, 1998).

The exact degree of the disturbance depends on several different factors, including how

different the society and culture is from their own and how the individual handles stress and

change in general. A student studying in a foreign country is typically isolated almost

entirely from their closest friends and family. Even today with technology as advanced as it

is, telephone calls between distant countries are still very expensive and conversation via the

internet can be unsatisfying and slow when you really need to talk with someone. There is

also the issue of adapting to societal norms and customs that are entirely unlike those of

someone's home. Most people fall into certain routines, especially with the less thought of

activities. There may be a brand of shampoo a person always uses, a cereal they eat every

morning, or just a certain daily routine that is impossible to follow while abroad. This can

frustrate people, and in the case of food habits, can disrupt a person’s diet and cause them to

fall ill.

            Individuals who have traveled abroad often for short vacations are often believed to

be more immune to these issues, however research has shown that having spent time

vacationing in a foreign country, even if done frequently, does not reduce the chance of

experiencing difficulty adjusting to a foreign culture (Furnham, 2004), or as it is more

commonly referred to, "culture shock." "Culture shock" was first used in 1960 by the

anthropologist Oberg in a short descriptive article based on personal observations, to refer to
Second language acquisition   9


the difficulty people experience when first immersing themselves in a culture that is unlike

their own. Though it started as simply a colloquial term and has never been assigned actual

psychiatric diagnostic criteria, the idea of culture shock has been the inspiration and focal

point of much research and literature. However, any research done regarding culture shock

still must include the fact that the concept is still theoretical and there may be several

differing opinions on how to measure the causes and experience of culture shock (Mumford,

1998).

         Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994, as cited in Furnham, 2004) believe there are two main

contributing factors that determine whether an individual will experience culture shock or not.

The first is Intrapersonal factors, which includes any internal feelings and fears that are

caused by spending an extended time in a foreign environment (feeling inferior or uncertain

about the future). The second is Interpersonal factors, which refers to the fears or feelings of

awkwardness or isolation that are directly related to the environment and society (making

friends, school experience, loss of regular social support, etc.).

         As for the actual experience of culture shock, Taft (1977, as cited in Mumford, 1998)

developed a set of six aspects:

         1. Strain due to the effort required to make necessary psychological adaptions

         2. A sense of loss and feelings of deprivation in regard to friends, status, profession

            and possessions

         3. Being rejected by and/or rejecting members of the new culture

         4. Confusion in role, role expectations, values, feelings and self-identity

         5. Surprise, anxiety, even disgust and indignation after becoming aware of cultural

            differences

         6. Feelings of impotence due to not being able to cope with the new environment
Second language acquisition     10


       Another problem individuals might experience when studying in a foreign country, is

forgetting bits of their native language the more they immerse themselves in the foreign

language, known as first-language attrition. This can be due to the fact that they are using

their native language more infrequently, or to the fact that in learning a second language, a

person learns new words for everything they know which is a large memory learning task that

could interfere with their previous memories (Levy, McVeigh, Marful, & Anderson, 2007).

Most of the first-language attrition effects vocabulary, but general language usage may also

be effective. Many languages use different sentence structures, and after even a few hours of

forming foreign sentences in one order can confuse speech patterns in the native language.

       Often times it is assumed that age plays a large factor into how easily one acquires a

language, but what is often overlooked is the frequency of how much particular age groups

use the new language (Hammerly, 1987). A child learning a second language is still at a low

level with their first language, so mistakes are more acceptable for them and they are not

trying to form sentences beyond their level. If an adult tries to convey a thought in a second

language, they may encounter difficulty expressing their thoughts which originate in their

advanced native language vocabulary, into their limited second language vocabulary. Also,

when a family moves to a new country, the children are forced to acquire the new language to

interact in school and society. Parents and grandparents however, tend to close off and rely

on their children to act as interpreters for them.

       There is some truth to age influencing language however. Three principle factors

influence older individuals in their attempt to learn another language: decreases in processing

speed, deficits in working memory, and the ability to focus attention on relevant material

(Park, 2000, as cited in Birdsong, 2006). Research has shown that the declines in these

factors begins in early adulthood and decreases gradually more throughout the life span

(Birdsong, 2006).
Second language acquisition      11


        Beyond all of the previously mentioned difficulties that exist in the environment for a

person learning a second language, there is also the internal foreign language anxiety, a

situation-specific anxiety disorder that arises from the foreign language learning. This

anxiety revolves around three interrelated performance anxieties: communication

apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. Rodriguez and Abreu (2003) set

out to discover if there is any correlation between foreign language anxiety and which

language is being studied by an individual compared to the native language of the speaker.

They found no significant difference, implying that foreign language anxiety can occur across

several, if not all native language/foreign language combinations.

        Another internal attribute to learning a foreign language lies in simply the strategies

used to learn. Vann and Abraham (1990) categorized these strategies into four groups:

engagement, risk taking, knowledge, and control. Engagement is the general attention a

person gives to learning. Risk taking refers to a person’s willingness to make mistakes and

have them corrected. Knowledge involves the ability to fit information learned in a foreign

language into set schemas and being able to discern when usage is correct or incorrect.

Control is simply a person’s ability to monitor their learning and coordinate new information

learned with old information learned. These four categories can also intersect with each other,

if a person feels they do not have sufficient knowledge of the language, they are less likely to

take risk.

        Overall, the methods used in second language acquisition needs some re-inventing.

Hammerly (1987) suggested a four step process for language acquisition. First, students

receive an introductory or exploratory course in the second language. After this exploratory

course, students receive a semi-intensive systematic instruction in the second language. This

program would not be like the typical American language class which meets for about 50

minutes a day 2-3 days a week, but would instead meet about two hours a day 4-5 days a
Second language acquisition   12


week. The third step of this process is a partial immersion program such as the Elgin

program. Then, the final step would be to fully immerse the student in the second language.

       The problem with these steps is that there is not currently enough of a demand for

such a focused and in-depth language program within the United States. What demand there

is, is given very little attention and funding. Until the benefits of knowing additional

languages is given some importance by English speaking parents and within the educational

system, a program of this depth is practically impossible (Cohen & Swain, 1976).
Second language acquisition     13


                                          References:

Barik, H. C., & Swain, M. (1976). English-French bilingual education in the early grades:

       The Elgin study through grade four. The Modern Language Journal, 58, 392-403.

Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective

       overview. Language Learning, 56(1), 9-49.

Chapelle, C. (1990). The discourse of computer-assisted language learning: Toward a context

       for descriptive research. TESOL Quarterly, 24(2), 199-225.

Christian, D. (1996). Two-way immersion education: Students learning through two

       languages. The Modern Language Journal, 80(1), 66-76.

Cohen, A. D. & Swain, M. (1976). Bilingual education: The “immersion” model in the north

       American context. TESOL Quarterly, 10(1), 45-53.

Furnham, A. (2004). Foreign students: Education and culture shock. The Psychologist, 17(1),

       16-19.

Hammerly, H. (1987). The immersion approach: Litmus test of second language acquisition

       through classroom communication. The Modern Language Journal, 71(4), 395-401.

Lee, J. S., Hill-Bonnet, L., & Gillispie, J. (2008). Learning in two languages: Interactional

       spaces for becoming bilingual speakers. International Journal of Bilingual Education

       and Bilingualism, 11(1), 75-94.

Levy, B. J., McVeigh, N. D., Marful, A., & Anderson, M. C. (2007). Inhibiting your native

       language: The role of retrieval-induced forgetting during second language acquisition.

       Association for Psychological Science, 18(1), 29-34.

Lowe, T., Dozier, C., Hunt-Hurst, P., & Smith, B. (2008). Study abroad in west Africa: An

       interdisciplinary program of international education. College Student Journal, 42(3),

       738-747.

Mumford, D. B. (1998). The measurement of culture shock. Social Psychiatry Psychiatr
Second language acquisition   14


       Epidemiol, 33, 149-154.

Rodriguez, M., & Abreu, O. (2003). The stability of general foreign language classroom

       anxiety across English and French. The Modern Language Journal, 87(3), 365-374.

Snow, M. A., Met, M., & Genesee, F. (1989). A conceptual framework for the integration of

       language and content in second/foreign language instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 23(2),

       201-217.

Traphagan, T. W. Language learning software: What can it do? University of Texas - Austin.

Vann, R. J., & Abraham, R. G. (1990). Strategies of unsuccessful language learners.

       TESOL Quarterly, 24(2), 177-198.

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Second Language Acquisition

  • 1. Second language acquisition 1 NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY Second Language Acquisition and the Effectiveness of Different Methods of Studying Languages A Thesis Submitted to the University Honors Program In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Baccalaureate Degree With Upper Division Honors Department of Psychology By Gina M. Martino DeKalb, Illinois May 09, 2009
  • 2. Second language acquisition 2 The United States is far behind most countries when it comes to second language acquisition. In the US, students are not typically required to learn a second language until the High School grade level. Even after completing the required language programs though, students are unable to apply what they have learned. In most European countries, students begin learning second languages early on in school and most individuals, child or adult, are able to effectively communicate in their second language if not also in a third and fourth. In Canada, almost all of the provinces have total immersion programs set-up (Cohen & Swain, 1976). In the past, knowing a second language, at least from the American perspective, may not have been as important. The United States is a large country, where practically everyone spoke English, and there was little demand for individuals to learn additional languages. In today's society however, things are a little different. First of all, the minority population is growing larger by the day. It is helpful to know an additional language just to have the ability to communicate with these individuals. Secondly, and probably more pressing reason for individuals to learn another language, is that businesses need to communicate with the minorities in the US as well as conduct trade with other countries. The job market is becoming more and more competitive and companies are looking for people who are able to do more. With this, they are looking to hire individuals who are fluent in both English and at least one additional language. Many times, if a person does not know a second language, they will be considered under qualified for a position and be passed over for a bilingual individual who might be less qualified in every other way. Most people realize at this point that learning a second language is crucial, but for some reason, the United States has yet to significantly increase language programs. In turn, people who wish to learn a language after or outside of the public school system are forced to
  • 3. Second language acquisition 3 find ulterier methods. There are so many different options for language acquisition though, and not all are effective. One of the most available methods to learning a second language comes in the form of books. A trip to a local bookstore will present an individual with dozens of different books on almost any language. There are books that specialize in learning verbs, books on vocabulary, and books that take the reader through a general overview. Books may be effective for some people, and are great supplemental materials for students studying through other methods or just brushing up on a language they have not used in a while, but for the individual who needs a more interactive method, books are very dry and can be difficult to decipher. A step up from books is audio programs. Audio programs could refer to cassette tapes, CD’s, and the newly popular mp3 programs that can be downloaded onto iPods and other MP3 players. There are many audio programs that advertise that a person can learn a language in their car, or on the flight to another country, but the programs are rarely, if ever, that effective. First of all, audio programs are commonly not entirely audio based but rather come with a book that the student should follow along with or consult for vocabulary words and such. Also, languages are much too complex to learn in the few hours that these audio programs often advertise. Like books, audio programs are a great supplement to other language instruction, but alone they are only minimally effective. With the more recent popularity of the iPod and podcasts, there are many podcasts which are concerned with language acquisition. Some of these are very basic and give the listener a few vocabulary words with each episode, while others go more in depth and even give the listener bits of cultural information. These still however fall into the audio category. With technology at the forefront of today's society, probably the most popular way for individuals to learn a foreign language is with computer programs. Computer assisted
  • 4. Second language acquisition 4 language learning is now very commonly used in language instruction to provide supplemental practice in various skills, but computer programs are also very popular with individuals who are unable or unwilling to enroll in a classroom language course. The most prevalent ones on the market now-a-days are Instant Immersion (by Topics Entertainment), Learn Now! (by Transparent Language), and of course Rosetta Stone (by Fairfield Language Technologies). Each of these programs utilizes various teaching methods and varying levels of immersion. The most popular of the three, Rosetta Stone, is surprisingly also the most simplistic, using matching exercises as the focus of the program. These matching exercises use pictures only, which many people see as a problem, with the preference being for programs that use various multimedia methods. Another large oversight on the part of most, if not all computer programs, is a lack of exercises requiring users to work with material longer than a sentence in length (Traphagan). While computer programs offer a consistency that instructors often like, this is only if every student uses the program in the same way. Beyond the control of the program designers, is how the student uses the exercises and tools made available by a given program. In programs that give the user control of which exercises they do or do not complete, a student may skip an exercise they need simply because they do not enjoy it. One tool that is likely to be ignored is the option of the user recording their voice to compare it with that of a native speaker’s voice. Often times computers do not have microphones already installed and individuals either cannot afford, or do not take the effort to go purchase a separate microphone. Even once a separate microphone is acquired, they can be complicated to install and make work and people will just give up. Other included features are often overlooked as well. If a program has a help option, or a spell-check option, certain students may take advantage of this while others choose not to (Chapelle, 1990).
  • 5. Second language acquisition 5 Despite what companies have produced thus far in language acquisition, the classroom environment is still generally more effective. Unlike books, audio programs, or computer programs, a classroom environment allows for feedback from an instructor and interaction with other students who are typically at an equal level. However the effectiveness of a language program depends upon factors that determine the effectiveness of any classroom. The most important element to determine the effectiveness of a class is the instructor. While it is hoped that all instructors are effective, there are still teachers out there who give very little instruction, or give instruction in only one manner (i.e. lecture). Many students need more interactive methods to learn material, therefore the most effective instructors use lectures, visual aids, computer programs, reading, and pretty much any other way they can think of to expose the student to their target foreign language. The other large drawback to classroom language acquisition is that, as stated previously, the United States still puts little emphasize on language programs. Most high schools have language programs, but not many junior highs or elementary schools have any language programs in place. In addition, once a student reaches the high school level, there are not always a lot of options for which language they can choose. The most popular languages taught in United States schools are Spanish and French, but students may desire a chance to learn a different language, such as Italian, Japanese, German, and other languages. Even if a school has programs in various languages, it is often difficult to sign up for a course. For example, Northern Illinois University has programs in 18 different languages including: Arabic, Burmese, Chinese, French, German, Hebrew, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Southeast Asian, Spanish, Swahili, Tagalog, and Thai. However, for Spanish, there are usually at least two to three sections available for every level, every semester. For most of the languages however, there is one section for each level, and certain classes are only offered certain semesters. The Italian program for instance, might
  • 6. Second language acquisition 6 have three sections of Italian 101 available, but the 101 and 201 levels are only offered in the fall while the 102 and 202 levels are only offered in the spring. Then, the classes narrow significantly as the student advances in the language. In the 2006-2007 academic year, there were three sections of Italian in the 100-level, but the following fall there was only one section of Italian 201. If the average class has 30 students in it, this meant that 60 students were unable to continue into a second year with the Italian language. For the 300 and 400- level classes, there is only one section available as well, but now this one section is only offered every couple years. It might be argued that there is not enough interest in the language to provide more sections, but from an insider’s perspective, there are always students who are wishing to continue with the language and are unable to. In the fall of 2008, three students were forced to take a 300 or 400 level course as an independent study because the courses they needed to complete their chosen minor in the Italian language would not be offered again before they graduated. Even when a student makes use of every option to take a language class, one can only learn so much in a one hour class offered two to three days a week. Another alternative to classroom language acquisition is partial immersion. Partial immersion is when schools structure classes in and through the second language. Many researchers believe that language is better developed when the language itself is not the primary focus of the classroom or the content the student is being graded on (Short, 1993, as cited in Christian, 1996; Snow, Met, & Genesee, 1989). This is likely because it takes the pressure off of the individual to perfect the language and turns it into a tool to communicate. An example of this is the Elgin program in Ontario. This school program uses the second language, French for the first two and a half hours of the day (including the subjects Mathematics, Music, French Language Arts, Reading, and Composition), and English for the last two and a half hours of the day (including English Language Arts, Physical Education, Science, Social Studies, Art, and Health). When the
  • 7. Second language acquisition 7 Barik and Swain (1976) compared the Elgin programs effectiveness in learning a second language with the normal language classroom, the results were not very promising in the first few years, but the higher grade levels showed better results, suggesting that while partial immersion was difficult at first, as students adjusted it was more effective. Generally the languages are kept separate from each other by either subjects (Math and Science in one language while Reading and Composition are in the other), time of day (one language in the morning, the other language in the afternoon), or by specific teachers (one teacher teaches everything in one language while another teaches in the other language) (Christian, 1996). Also, while there may be use of both languages during the classroom environment, children do not tend to switch to the second language on the playground when they are free to use either language (Lee, Hill-Bonnet, & Gillispie, 2008). In this students often continue to keep friends of the same native language and are less likely to interact with native speakers of the second language which removes the opportunity to interact socially in their second language entirely. Another important factor that contributes to the effectiveness of these programs is that the instruction methods that are effective in normal schools (activities vs. lecture) are also effective with partial immersion schools (Christian, 1996). One very important distinction to make here is that these are immersion programs, not submersion. Submersion is what many students encounter when they first move to the United States. ESL programs are generally taught entirely in English and contain students from all different language backgrounds. Then, ESL students are thrown into the schools normal curriculum and surrounded by native English speakers who they fear will tease them and ridicule them for their imperfect knowledge of the language. The more insecure the student feels in using the language, the less likely they are to do so which will inhibit their development.
  • 8. Second language acquisition 8 As the need for a globalized workforce increases, the demand for students to study abroad has become a growing trend in higher education, showing a 250 percent increase in the number of United States students completing study abroad programs from 1995 up until now (Krisantas, 2005 as cited in Lowe, Dozier, Hunt-Hurst, & Smith, 2008). While the opportunity to study abroad is an invaluable experience that can be exciting and life altering, it is also very frightening and overwhelming. Individuals who submerse themselves in a foreign culture frequently experience some degree of emotional disturbance (Mumford, 1998). The exact degree of the disturbance depends on several different factors, including how different the society and culture is from their own and how the individual handles stress and change in general. A student studying in a foreign country is typically isolated almost entirely from their closest friends and family. Even today with technology as advanced as it is, telephone calls between distant countries are still very expensive and conversation via the internet can be unsatisfying and slow when you really need to talk with someone. There is also the issue of adapting to societal norms and customs that are entirely unlike those of someone's home. Most people fall into certain routines, especially with the less thought of activities. There may be a brand of shampoo a person always uses, a cereal they eat every morning, or just a certain daily routine that is impossible to follow while abroad. This can frustrate people, and in the case of food habits, can disrupt a person’s diet and cause them to fall ill. Individuals who have traveled abroad often for short vacations are often believed to be more immune to these issues, however research has shown that having spent time vacationing in a foreign country, even if done frequently, does not reduce the chance of experiencing difficulty adjusting to a foreign culture (Furnham, 2004), or as it is more commonly referred to, "culture shock." "Culture shock" was first used in 1960 by the anthropologist Oberg in a short descriptive article based on personal observations, to refer to
  • 9. Second language acquisition 9 the difficulty people experience when first immersing themselves in a culture that is unlike their own. Though it started as simply a colloquial term and has never been assigned actual psychiatric diagnostic criteria, the idea of culture shock has been the inspiration and focal point of much research and literature. However, any research done regarding culture shock still must include the fact that the concept is still theoretical and there may be several differing opinions on how to measure the causes and experience of culture shock (Mumford, 1998). Sandhu and Asrabadi (1994, as cited in Furnham, 2004) believe there are two main contributing factors that determine whether an individual will experience culture shock or not. The first is Intrapersonal factors, which includes any internal feelings and fears that are caused by spending an extended time in a foreign environment (feeling inferior or uncertain about the future). The second is Interpersonal factors, which refers to the fears or feelings of awkwardness or isolation that are directly related to the environment and society (making friends, school experience, loss of regular social support, etc.). As for the actual experience of culture shock, Taft (1977, as cited in Mumford, 1998) developed a set of six aspects: 1. Strain due to the effort required to make necessary psychological adaptions 2. A sense of loss and feelings of deprivation in regard to friends, status, profession and possessions 3. Being rejected by and/or rejecting members of the new culture 4. Confusion in role, role expectations, values, feelings and self-identity 5. Surprise, anxiety, even disgust and indignation after becoming aware of cultural differences 6. Feelings of impotence due to not being able to cope with the new environment
  • 10. Second language acquisition 10 Another problem individuals might experience when studying in a foreign country, is forgetting bits of their native language the more they immerse themselves in the foreign language, known as first-language attrition. This can be due to the fact that they are using their native language more infrequently, or to the fact that in learning a second language, a person learns new words for everything they know which is a large memory learning task that could interfere with their previous memories (Levy, McVeigh, Marful, & Anderson, 2007). Most of the first-language attrition effects vocabulary, but general language usage may also be effective. Many languages use different sentence structures, and after even a few hours of forming foreign sentences in one order can confuse speech patterns in the native language. Often times it is assumed that age plays a large factor into how easily one acquires a language, but what is often overlooked is the frequency of how much particular age groups use the new language (Hammerly, 1987). A child learning a second language is still at a low level with their first language, so mistakes are more acceptable for them and they are not trying to form sentences beyond their level. If an adult tries to convey a thought in a second language, they may encounter difficulty expressing their thoughts which originate in their advanced native language vocabulary, into their limited second language vocabulary. Also, when a family moves to a new country, the children are forced to acquire the new language to interact in school and society. Parents and grandparents however, tend to close off and rely on their children to act as interpreters for them. There is some truth to age influencing language however. Three principle factors influence older individuals in their attempt to learn another language: decreases in processing speed, deficits in working memory, and the ability to focus attention on relevant material (Park, 2000, as cited in Birdsong, 2006). Research has shown that the declines in these factors begins in early adulthood and decreases gradually more throughout the life span (Birdsong, 2006).
  • 11. Second language acquisition 11 Beyond all of the previously mentioned difficulties that exist in the environment for a person learning a second language, there is also the internal foreign language anxiety, a situation-specific anxiety disorder that arises from the foreign language learning. This anxiety revolves around three interrelated performance anxieties: communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. Rodriguez and Abreu (2003) set out to discover if there is any correlation between foreign language anxiety and which language is being studied by an individual compared to the native language of the speaker. They found no significant difference, implying that foreign language anxiety can occur across several, if not all native language/foreign language combinations. Another internal attribute to learning a foreign language lies in simply the strategies used to learn. Vann and Abraham (1990) categorized these strategies into four groups: engagement, risk taking, knowledge, and control. Engagement is the general attention a person gives to learning. Risk taking refers to a person’s willingness to make mistakes and have them corrected. Knowledge involves the ability to fit information learned in a foreign language into set schemas and being able to discern when usage is correct or incorrect. Control is simply a person’s ability to monitor their learning and coordinate new information learned with old information learned. These four categories can also intersect with each other, if a person feels they do not have sufficient knowledge of the language, they are less likely to take risk. Overall, the methods used in second language acquisition needs some re-inventing. Hammerly (1987) suggested a four step process for language acquisition. First, students receive an introductory or exploratory course in the second language. After this exploratory course, students receive a semi-intensive systematic instruction in the second language. This program would not be like the typical American language class which meets for about 50 minutes a day 2-3 days a week, but would instead meet about two hours a day 4-5 days a
  • 12. Second language acquisition 12 week. The third step of this process is a partial immersion program such as the Elgin program. Then, the final step would be to fully immerse the student in the second language. The problem with these steps is that there is not currently enough of a demand for such a focused and in-depth language program within the United States. What demand there is, is given very little attention and funding. Until the benefits of knowing additional languages is given some importance by English speaking parents and within the educational system, a program of this depth is practically impossible (Cohen & Swain, 1976).
  • 13. Second language acquisition 13 References: Barik, H. C., & Swain, M. (1976). English-French bilingual education in the early grades: The Elgin study through grade four. The Modern Language Journal, 58, 392-403. Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56(1), 9-49. Chapelle, C. (1990). The discourse of computer-assisted language learning: Toward a context for descriptive research. TESOL Quarterly, 24(2), 199-225. Christian, D. (1996). Two-way immersion education: Students learning through two languages. The Modern Language Journal, 80(1), 66-76. Cohen, A. D. & Swain, M. (1976). Bilingual education: The “immersion” model in the north American context. TESOL Quarterly, 10(1), 45-53. Furnham, A. (2004). Foreign students: Education and culture shock. The Psychologist, 17(1), 16-19. Hammerly, H. (1987). The immersion approach: Litmus test of second language acquisition through classroom communication. The Modern Language Journal, 71(4), 395-401. Lee, J. S., Hill-Bonnet, L., & Gillispie, J. (2008). Learning in two languages: Interactional spaces for becoming bilingual speakers. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 11(1), 75-94. Levy, B. J., McVeigh, N. D., Marful, A., & Anderson, M. C. (2007). Inhibiting your native language: The role of retrieval-induced forgetting during second language acquisition. Association for Psychological Science, 18(1), 29-34. Lowe, T., Dozier, C., Hunt-Hurst, P., & Smith, B. (2008). Study abroad in west Africa: An interdisciplinary program of international education. College Student Journal, 42(3), 738-747. Mumford, D. B. (1998). The measurement of culture shock. Social Psychiatry Psychiatr
  • 14. Second language acquisition 14 Epidemiol, 33, 149-154. Rodriguez, M., & Abreu, O. (2003). The stability of general foreign language classroom anxiety across English and French. The Modern Language Journal, 87(3), 365-374. Snow, M. A., Met, M., & Genesee, F. (1989). A conceptual framework for the integration of language and content in second/foreign language instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 23(2), 201-217. Traphagan, T. W. Language learning software: What can it do? University of Texas - Austin. Vann, R. J., & Abraham, R. G. (1990). Strategies of unsuccessful language learners. TESOL Quarterly, 24(2), 177-198.