The Gulf of St. Lawrence and its river and estuary constitute one of the most nutrient-rich aquatic areas in the world. The shape of the river trench and the currents and gyres in the gulf provide habitat for abundant aquatic life, including whales as far up river as Tadoussac QC. However, oil deposits beneath the Gulf offer opportunity for oil companies while drilling would pose a serious threat to life in the ecosystem should a spill occur. This research talks about the Gulfs' geology,biology and impacts if oil drilling does occur. Credits: Emily and Patrick

1. Risks, rewards and richness of off-shore oil
drilling in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence
Authors: EmilyFarlam-Williams(100921417), IbrahimJanjua(100907837) and PatrickBourgon
(100886931)
Course:ENSC 3509 – GroupProject
Advisor: Jesse Vermaire
Instructor: KringenHeinen
Figure 1: MacLeod Beach, Cape Breton Island, NS
Credit: Trudy Watts

2. Abstract
From ecological,social andhydrological perspectives,the Gulf of the St.Lawrence inEastern
NorthAmericacan provide certainaspectsthatno otherplace inCanada can provide.The abundantlife
inthe OrdovicianandCarboniferousperiodshave potentiallyledtosignificantoil depositsunderthe
Gulf.Aswell,the warmGulf Streamand coldLabrador Currentinfluence the kindof wildlife andhabitats
found.There isa gradientof ecosystemsinthe Gulf,includingaquatic,marine,estuarine andterrestrial
habitats.Ontop of this, a large proportionof the floraand fauna foundinthe Gulf are consideredat-
risk.However,the Gulf facessimilarissuestothatof otherareas inthe world:overfishing,degradation
of habitats,agricultural run-off,eutrophicationof estuariesandclimate change.Itisimportantto
acknowledge howtheseare influencingthe ecosystemsinthe regionwhenlookingatwhetherornotto
pursue oil drilling.
Previousattemptstofindoil andgas have beenunsuccessful.Withthatbeingsaid,the Old
Harry Salt Dome lookspromisingforhavingsignificantamountsof oil andgasdeposits.Notmuch
researchhas beendone atthispointbyoil companiesdue tothe pushbackfrom the public.Thisis
because anoil accidenthas the potential toimpactthe wildlife,the ecosystemsandthe fishingand
tourismindustriesinthe Gulf.Eventhe exploratoryphases have the potential tonegativelyimpactthe
wildlife andcanoverall be considereddamagingtothe environment.Itisimportanttonote that two of
the most severe oil-drillingaccidentsinrecenthistoryhave occurredinthe exploratoryphase.
In thisreport,factorsinfluencingthe Gulf of St.Lawrence fromthe followingperspectiveswill be
lookedatinthe contextof off-shore oil drilling:geology,hydrology,ecologyandsocioeconomics.Itis
importantto acknowledgethatthese fieldsof researchare interconnectedandcollectivelycontribute to
the uniquenessandoverall significance of the Gulf.

3. Acknowledgements
We wouldlike tothankKringenHeinenandJesse Vermaire forprovidingsomuchhelptous overthe
semester.Emilywouldalsoliketothank herfriendsandfamilyfortheirsupport.
Table of Contents
Introduction
SectionA (author: Patrick Bourgon) GeomorphologyandHydrology of the Gulfofthe St. Lawrence
Chapter 1 – Geomorphologyof the Gulf of the St. Lawrence
1.1 How the Gulf of the St. Lawrence formed
1.2 Effectsof glaciation
Chapter 2 – The Geologybehindthe Oil andGasDepositsinthe Gulf
2.1 Oil andNatural Gas Formation
2.2 The SedimentaryBasins
2.3 Oil Explorationinthe Gulf
2.4 The Importance of the OldHarry Site
Chapter 3 – Hydrologyof the Gulf of the St. Lawrence
3.1 NorthAtlanticCurrent
3.2 The Labrador Current
3.3 Watershedof the Gulf:the St. Lawrence River
3.4 Conclusion
SectionB (author: EmilyFarlam-Williams) The Ecologyand Biodiversityofthe Gulfofthe St. Lawrence
Chapter 4 – The Ecologyof the Gulf
Chapter 5 – Major Typesof Habitatsinthe Gulf
5.1 Terrestrial Habitats
5.2 Estuarine Habitats
5.3 AquaticHabitats
Chapter 6 – AnthropogenicPressuresandHow TheyAre Impactingthe Region

4. SectionC (author: Ibrahim Janjua) A Brief History of Settlement,Oil-Drillingandthe Socioeconomic
Impacts of Oil inthe Gulf
Chapter 7 – Resourcesof the Gulf
7.1 Fishing,TourismandtheirImportance tothe Gulf
7.2: Historyof Offshore Oil Drillinginthe Gulf
Chapter 8 -- Processof Oil and Gas Exploration
8.1 How the systemworksandthe playersinvolved
8.2 SeismicSurveying&Oil Drilling
Chapter 9 -- Impactsof Oil Exploration
9.1 Environmental ImpactsandMitigationsforEachStage
9.2: SocioeconomicImpacts
Conclusionand Future Areas of Research
Table of Contents – Figures
Figure 1: MacLeod Beach,Cape BretonIsland,NS (title page)
Figure 2: Maximumextentof ice coverage aroundthe worldduringthe lastglaciation (p.8)
Figure 3: The Milankovitchcyclesandthe timesof the lastglaciations (p.10)
Figure 4: Map of the sedimentarybasinsinthe Gulf of the St.Lawrence (p.15)
Figure 5: Map of the locationof oil wellsinthe Gulf of the St.Lawrence (p.16)
Figure 6: Map of the pathwayof the Gulf Streamin the AtlanticOcean(p.17)
Figure 7: A map of the pathwayof the Labrador Current (p.19)
Figure 8: Drainage basinof the Gulf of St. Lawrence (p.20)
Figure 9: the St. Lawrence Estuaryand where itwidensintothe Gulf (p.25)
Figure 10: The St. Lawrence River(p.26)
Figure 11: A comparisonof lowtide and hightide atHopewell Cape inthe Bayof Fundy (p.27)
Figure 12: Exploitationrate bycommercial fisheriesonSouthernGulf cod (p.29)
Figure 13: The Basinsof the Gulf of SaintLawrence (p.30)
Figure 14: Oil explorationlicensesinthe Gulf of St.Lawrence (p.34)
Figure 15: SeismicSurveysinthe Gulf of SaintLawrence (p.35)

5. Introduction
The Gulf of the St. Lawrence hasplayeda large role inthe developmentof Canadasince European
settlersfirstarrivedonitsshoresinthe 15th
century.Evenpriorto that,it was extremelybeneficial to
the Aboriginalsinthe area. The abundance of natural resources,mostnotablycod,ledtothe area
gettingnamed“the Riverof Cod”.The manyspeciesof groundfish, includingcod,quicklybecamethe
heartof the economyas itwas an importantfoodsource,a trade commodityandhelpedwiththe
industrial developmentandeconomicexpansionbetweenEurope andpresent-dayNewfoundland(Lear,
1998). This ledtoa rise inthe fishingindustry andbecame asource of livelihoodof itsinhabitantsfor
several centuries.However,due tooverfishing,the fishingindustry hasstruggledinthe pastfew
decadesbuthas diversifiedgreatlyoverthe pastfew years.Todaythe maineconomicactivities inthe
area are tourismandfishing.
The Gulf notonlyhas a unique ecosystembutalsocontainsalotof potential resourcessuchasoil
and gas.Oil companieshave beeninterestedinthe areaeversince the technologytodrill oil andgas
was developed. The twomainstages of drillingisseismicsurveyinganddrilling.Seismicsurveyingis
done firstsince drillingisexpensive (Archambault,2014) andit isimportantto know whatthe areahas
to offerfirst.The processcan go onfrom days to months,dependingonthe scope of the project.Drilling
isthe onlymeanstodetermine whetherthere isoil orgas. It isalsoone of the riskieststepsinthe
exploratorycycle astwoof the largestoil spillsthathave occurredhave happenedduringthe
exploratorydrillingphase.Bothstageshave the potentialtocause impactsonthe marine life.
The oil and gas activityalsoaffectssocietyonaneconomical level since the jobmarketstartsto
openup inthe oil industry (CanadianAssociationof PetroleumProducers,2015) and the fishingindustry
may be negativelyinfluenced if aneventsuchasan oil spill occurs.

6. The Gulf of the St. Lawrence isfascinatingbothfroma geological andhydrological standpoint.Itwas
createddue to the last glaciation andisone the mostsignificantfeaturescreatedbythem.There are
twoocean currentsthat affectthe hydrologyandecologyof the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. Theyare the
warm Gulf Stream(alsoknownasthe NorthAtlanticcurrent) andthe coldLabrador Current(Hogan,
2013). The mixingof the coldandwarm waterprovide adiverse amountof habitatsforlife toflourishin.
The St. Lawrence Riverisanotherbodyof water hasa greateffectonthe Gulf of the St. Lawrence.It
bringsinlarge amountsof freshwaterintothe Gulf whichallowsforthe formationof estuaries
(EnvironmentCanada,2015).These are transitory zonesof fresh waterandsaltwater.The Gulf of the
St. Lawrence isone of the fewplacesonEarth where estuariescanbe found (Hogan,2013). Lookingat
the Gulf in itsentirety,itisevidentthatthere isa gradientof freshtosalt waterand fromcoldto
warmerwaters.It isreflectedinthe wide varietyof flora,faunaandecosystems.
In termsof how Canadahas beenprotectingthe ecologyof the region,the Conventionof
Biological Diversity wassignedin1992 at Rio de Janeiroand the OceansAct was putintoeffect four
yearslaterin 1996. The OceansAct issignificantinthatitdefinesarequirementtoprotectthe species
that live inmarine habitats,the ecosystemsthese specieslive inandthe overall healthof the ocean.It
alsoacknowledgesthatthese oceansare the commonheritage of all Canadians.However,Canadais
experiencingwhatsomanyotherregionsinthe worldare strugglingwith,includinginvasive species,
overfishingand lossof habitat(Archambaultetal.,2010).
Canada isalreadyunique inthe factthat itscoastlinestouchonthree differentmajoroceans:
the Pacific,Arcticand AtlanticOceans.Ona much smallerscale,the Gulf of the St.Lawrence inEastern
Canada isunique inthatit touchesonthree provinces aswell astwostatesinthe UnitedStates.Aswell,
the Gulf is ecologicallyrich, withthe St.Lawrence Riverflowingintothe AtlanticOcean.Thus,there isa
gradientof freshto saltwater,creatinga wide varietyof habitats.Variable floodingconditionshave also
helpedincreatingamyriadof habitats,bothterrestrial andaquatic.Giventhe complexityof the St.

7. Lawrence area,especiallythe aquaticecosystems,itisunlikelythata full understandingof boththe
speciesandthe communitiesthatlive there will everbe obtained(DesgrangesandJobin,2003).
Thispaperwill lookatthe geological historyof the Gulf of the St. Lawrence andhow itledto the
possibilityof oil deposits,aswellasthe hydrologyof the regionandthe impactsithas on the
biodiversity,the historyandeconomyof the Gulf.Finally,the positivesandnegativesof goingahead
withoff-shore oil drillinginthe regionwill be examined.
Chapter 1: Geomorphology of the St. Lawrence
1.1 How the Gulf of the St. Lawrence formed
What is an ice age?
An ice age is a periodof extreme coolingonEarth.It is associatedwiththe developmentof ice shelfsand
glaciers,alongwiththe decrease of global sealevel.Ice ageshave greateffectsonnorthernlatitudes
due to the encroachmentof ice and the landbecominginhospitable forlife.Italsohasan impacton sea
life,due tothe changesinsealevel. Manyice ageshave occurred throughoutgeological timehowever
theybecame more extreme afterthe Pleistocene.The Pleistoceneoccurredbetween2millionyearsago
to 12 thousandyearsago. Duringwhicha large amountof ice agesand glacial periodsoccurred.(The
AmericanMuseumof Natural History1998).
Last glaciation
The Gulf of the St. Lawrence formedduringthe endof the lastglacial period.The lastglaciationlasted
fromabout 110,000 years ago to12,000 yearsago. Estimatesare thatapproximately26millionsquare
kilometerswere coveredbyice duringthe peakof the glaciation.The entire northernhemisphere
including;all of Canada,northernUnitedStates,southernSouthAmerica,Iceland,northernEurope,and
parts of Russia.Alsomountainousregionslikethe Himalayasexperiencedthe formationof large glaciers.
(Briney2015).

8. Figure 2: Maximum extent of ice coverage around the world during the last glaciation. (Credit: Bill Illis 2015).
Glacial vs. interglacial periods
Glaciationsare periodsof coolinginEarth’shistory,withinwhichice buildsupandeventuallyformsinto
an ice sheet.Anice sheetisan immense formationof ice thatcan stretchfor manykilometers.There
have beennumerousglaciationsinthe historyof the Earthand theyoccur around every100,000 years.
In betweenthese periodsthere are interglacialperiods,whichare periodsof warming.Interglacial
periodslastforabout15,000 yearsand we are currentlyinan interglacial period.(The American
Museumof Natural History,1998).
Causes
Scientistsstilldon’tknowthe exactcausesof glaciation,howeverthe mostacceptedtheoryonwhat
causesglaciationare the changesinthe amountof solar radiationthe planetisreceiving.Thistheory

9. was createdbyMilanMilankovitchandconsistsof three cyclesthataffectthe amountof solarradiation
the planetisreceiving.
The firstcycle is calledeccentricityanditconsistsof changesinthe orbitof the Earth aroundthe Sun.
The Earth’s orbitaround the Sunchangesfrom circularto elliptical andbackagain.Thiscycle takes
about100,000 yearsto complete.The Earthreceivesthe same amountof solarradiationwhenthe cycle
isin the circularphase.The Earth receivesthe differentamountsof solarradiationwhenthe cycle isin
the elliptical phase.Whenthe Earth’sorbitisinitsmost elliptical phase the differenceisatitsgreatest
because duringcertaintimesof the yearitat itsfurthestpointfromthe sun.Thismeansthat itwill be
coldestat those timesof the year.Currentlythe Earth’sorbitiscircular.(Climate Science Investigations,
2015).
The secondcycle is calledobliquityanditconsistsof changesinthe tiltof the Earth’s axis.The Earth’s tilt
changesfrom22.1° to 24.5°. This cycle takesabout41,000 years to complete.Summersare notas warm
and wintersare notas cold whenthe tiltisless.Glaciationismore likelytooccurwhenthe tiltisat its
lowestbecause thismakesthe summersunseasonablycool.Snow meltsduringthe summerbutif the
summerisnot as warmthenmore snowwill remainandtherefore snow andice canbuildupovertime.
Currentlythe Earth istitled23.5°. (Climate Science Investigations2015).
The third cycle iscalledprecisionanditconsistsof changesinEarth’saxis.The Earth rotationsonitsaxis
every24 hours. The axismakesa complete circle of itsaxisevery23,000 years.Thiscausesthe Earth to
“wobble”,whichcausesthe Earthto be closerto the sun inJulyinsteadof January.Thiscauses
intensificationof the summertemperaturesinthe NorthernHemisphere.Landmasscanchange in
temperature muchquickerthanoceans.Thisisa significantfindingasthe majorityof landmassonEarth
liesinthe NorthernHemisphere.Ice sheetshave atendencytogrow muchfasterand more easilyover
landmassesthanoveroceans.Thisisbecause assnow fall onlandit pilesupandaccumulates,while in

10. the oceanssnowusuallyjustmeltsoncontact withthe water.Therefore,changesinthe time of yearof
whenthe Earth isclosestto the suncan greatlyaffectthe climate onthisplanet.Whenthisoccurs
summersbecome muchwarmerandtherefore more ice andsnow will be meltedwhichwillcause the
ice sheetsandglacierstoretreat.(Climate ScienceInvestigations2015).
Figure 3: The Milankovitch cycles and the times of the last glaciations (Credit: JeffreyLee, 2012)
2.2 Effects of glaciation
Glaciationhasmultiple effectsonthe environmentsonEarth.These include:changesinsealevel,
creationof unique geological features,anderosionof the landscape.The amountof wateronEarth
remainsrelativelyconstantatall pointsintime.Waterchangesfromsolid,liquidorgasdependingon
the environment.Whenglaciationoccurice sheetsformandice is solid water.The wateristakenfrom
the oceansand fallsonthe landas precipitation.Whenthe climate iswarmthiswaterremainsinthe
liquidphase andisovertime transportedbackintothe oceans.Howeverduringglaciationthe climate is
coldand therefore the waterremainsonlandandsealevel dropsasa result.Thisprocessisknownas
Eustatic.Whenthe ice sheetsbecome thick(1-3kilometersinheight) theyreachhundredsof thousands
of poundsinweight.Thisaddedweightonthe Earth’scrust causes it to be lowereddue tobeing

11. squishedunderthe weight.Whenthe ice sheetsmeltthe crustthenreboundsuptoits original height,
thisisknownas Isostaticrebound. (SFUMuseumof ArcheologyandEthnology2005).
Erosion
Glaciersleave evidenceof theirpresenceduringeveryglacial event.One of the mostobvioussignsof
glaciersisthe erosionof a large area,some beinghundredsof kilometersinarea.Glaciersare very
heavysolidmassesof ice (waterinitssolidstate) thatscrape the landas they move overit.Glacierscan
pickup small andlarge amountsof soil debrisandthentrapit inside them.Whenthe glaciersretreat
theymeltanddepositthem.Anothervisible evidence of glaciersisglacial valleys.Theseoccurwhen
glaciersscraplarge valleysintomountainsides.There are three typesof mountainerosion;cirques,
arêtes,andhorns.
Cirquesare roundedshapedhollowswithsteepuphill faces.Arêtesare createdwhentwoglaciersmeet
and erode the ridgesof mountainsonbothsides,this resultsinjagged-narrowridges.Hornsare created
whenglaciersheavilyerode amountainleavingbehindasteeppointedpeak.(NationalSnow andIce
Data Center,2015).
Landforms
Whenice sheetsandglaciersretreattheycan create multiple differentlandforms.Theseinclude fjords,
moraines,kettlelakes,glacial erratics,anddrumlins.Fjordsare atype of valleyorhorncreatedwhen
the glacierretreatsandscrape the landscape.Whenthe glaciersretreattheydepositmoundsof gravel
or rocks. Sometimesthe glaciermeltsawayandleavesbehindaridge thatshow where the glacierwas,
these are knownas kettle lakes.Kettlelakesformwhenapiece of aglacierbreaksoff andis leftbehind
on the landscape.Overtime thispiece meltsandformsapond or small lake inthe landscape.Asglaciers
retreattheymeltawayand dropanythingthat theyhave pickedupwhentheyoriginallyadvanced.
Sometimestheycandropverylarge bouldersorrockswhichappearunnatural,these are calledglacial.

12. Drumlinsare long,teardrop-shapedsedimentdeposits.Theseforminlarge clusterssometimes
hundredsinnumber.(NSIDC,2015).
The Gulf of the St. Lawrence wascreatedwhenthe glaciersretreatedatthe endof the lastglaciation.As
the glaciersretreatedtheyeroded the landscape andleftdepressionsinit.Overtime thesefilledwith
water,and thisiswhyCanada has somany lakesandrivers.Asstatedpreviouslywaterthatfallsonland
as precipitationwill eventuallyfinditswaybacktothe ocean.All of the waterinthe lakesandriversin
Canada hadto reach the ocean some wayand thustheyflowedintothe areaof Gulf of the St. Lawrence,
whichresultedinitscreation.(Briney,2015).
Conditionsinthe Gulf
The Gulf of the St. Lawrence hasunique waterqualitiesthatcanvary widely.There canbe changesin
depth,lightconcentration,sedimentandcontaminates,salinity,andtemperature.The depthof the Gulf
of the St.Lawrence rangesfrom 50-500 meters.Thisleadstodifferencesinthe lightconcentrationsin
the waterbecause lightcan onlypenetrate watertoacertainextent.Indeeperpartsof the Gulf the
lightconcentrationwillbe muchlowerthanthose atshallowerparts.The Gulf of the St.Lawrence isfed
by the St. Lawrence Riverwhichbringsinhuge amountsof sedimentsandcontaminantsintothe Gulf.
The concentrationsof sedimentsandcontaminantsdecreasesthe furtherone isfrom land. Mostof the
containmentsare aresultof urban and rural runoff,suchas nitrogenandphosphorus.The Gulf of the St.
Lawrence isalsofedby the Atlanticwhichbringsinsaltwaterintothe Gulf.Salinityinthe Gulf can range
from25.2 to 30 parts perthousand.Salinity will become higherfromthe landtothe Atlantic.Lastly
watertemperaturesinthe Gulf range from0.9°C to 5°C. The watertemperature iscolderinthe deeper
parts of the Gulf andin areasclose the AtlanticOcean.(Hogan,2013).

13. Chapter 2: The Geology behind the Oil and Gas Deposits in the Gulf
2.1 Oil and Natural Gas Formation
Oil and natural gas like all fossil fuelsare made fromlivingthingsinoceans,rangingfrommicroscopicto
macroscopicinsize.Asthese lifeformslive,theyabsorbcarbonfromtheirenvironment.Whentheydie,
theysinkto the seafloorand overmillionsof yearstheyget buriedinlayersafterlayers of sedimentand
become exposedtoincreasingheatandpressure.Overtime,these conditions forcedthe creationof
hydrocarbonsfromthe organicmaterial.The deeperthe organicmaterial isburiedthe more heatitis
exposedto.Lighteroilsare producedwithmore heat.Overtime the oil andnatural gastravel up tothe
surface or get caughtunderan impermeablelayerof rockor clay.Thisis due to the fact that the oil and
natural gas are lighterinnatural thenthe surroundingground.(AdventuresinEnergy2015).
2.2 The Sedimentary Basins
The Gulf of the St. Lawrence liesontopof twosedimentarybasins,asshowninfigure 3.Both of which
are suitable forthe presence of oil ornatural gas.These twosedimentarybasinsare the AnticostiBasin
and the Madeleine Basin.The Anticosti Basinoriginallyformedduringthe Ordovicianperiodwhilethe
Madeleine Basinformedduringthe Carboniferousperiod.(Archambault,2014).
The Ordovicianperiodoccurredapproximatelybetween485 millionyearsagoto443 millionyearsago.
A huge diversificationof lifeoccurredduringthe Ordovicianperiod.Mostof the life onEarth at this
pointintime wasfoundinthe oceans,whichwere filledwithflourishingecosystemsandspecies.
Numerous newspeciesevolvedandcompletelycolonizedthe oceansduringthe Ordovician.The
dominatingassemblagesof life inthe Ordovicianwere the brachiopods(lampshells),bryozoans(moss
animals),trilobites,mollusks,andgraptolites(small,colonial,planktonicanimals).Alsothe first
colonizationof landbyfishstartedtooccur. (Holland2015).
The Carboniferousperiodoccurredapproximatelybetween358 millionyearsagoto298 millionyears
ago. The Carboniferousmarkedaperiodof diverse marine invertebrates.Thiswascausedbythe

14. openingof manydifferentnichesdue toamass extinctionthattookplace shortlybeforethe beginning
of the Carboniferousperiod.The Carboniferousperiodwasdominatedbythe crinoids,whichwere a
groupof stalkedechinoderms.Theseanimalswere suspensionfeedersthatwere soabundantthatthey
affectedbottomoceancurrentsandoceanwatercirculation (Manger,2015).
The Carboniferousisalsonotedforitshuge anthropoids,nowadayscommonlyknownas insects. There
were dragonflies the size of birdsandscorpionsthe size of dogs.The mainreasonfor the large size was
the fact that oxygenlevelsinthe Earth’satmosphere reachedapproximately80%.Insectshave aunique
ability,whichisthattheirsize isproportional tothe amountof oxygenavailable tothemintheir
environments.(Than,2011).This wasalsothe time whenthe largestanthropoidtoeverexistlived,
calledthe Arthropleura-- agiantcentipede thatcouldreachlengthsof upto three meters.(Prehistoric
Wildlife, 2015).
The Anticosti Basinandthe Madeleine Basinformedduringthe OrdovicianandCarboniferousperiods
respectively, whichbothexperiencedalarge abundance of oceanlife.Asstatedpreviously, oil and
natural gas form from the decompositionandcompressionof living organismsinthe oceans.Due tothis,
boththe basinshave the possibilityof havingoil ornatural gas deposits, althoughgeologistsbelieve that
the Madeleine Basinismore favourabletothe presence of oil ornatural gas. The reasonwhythese
basinspossiblyhave oil andnatural gas deposits isbecause there wasahuge amountof life inthe
oceansduringthe time whenthese basinswere forming. Therefore,there wasmore material towork
withinthe productionof fossil fuels. (Archambaultetal.2015).

15. Figure 4: Map of the sedimentary basins in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence (Credit: Archambault et al. 2015)
2.3 Oil Exploration in the Gulf
Due to its geological nature manyoil companiesare attemptingtofindoutif there are any oil deposits
inthe Gulf of the St.Lawrence.The firstexploratorywellsweredrilledin1942 and continueduntil 1996,
witha total of 10 wellsbeingdrilled.9of the wellswere drilledfrom1942 to 1983 and the last well was
drilledin1996. All 10 of these producednegative resultsforthe presence of oil andrevealedonlytraces
of natural gas.Onlythe E-49 well,drilledin1974, showedsignificantsignsof natural gaswithestimates
beingabout77 billioncubicfeetof natural gas.All of the wellshave beendrilledinthe Madeleinebasin
due to previouslystatedreasons.(Archambault,2014).

16. Figure 5: Map of the location of oil wells in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence (Credit: Archambault et al., 2015)
2.4 The Importance of the Old Harry Site
Oil companieshave statedthatthe OldHarry site as a proposedsite forfuture drillingdue toits
geological nature.The OldHarrystructure islocatedapproximately80 kilometersfromthe westcoastof
Newfoundlandandthe MagdalenIslands,andinthe middle of the LaurentianChannel.The OldHarry
site consistof a vast saltdome that isapproximately12kilometerswide and30 kilometerslong.Itis
buriedunder3 kilometersof sedimentarylayers.The structure hastwo“bumps”that rise upward,
whichissignificantas these moundsformhydrocarbontraps.One thirdof the structure isfoundon the
Newfoundlandsidewhile the restliesonthe Quebecside.The Quebecside isbelievedtohave mostof
the oil or natural gas, due to the fact that the majority of the site isonthe Quebecside.Itisuncertainas
to howmuch oil ispresentinthe OldHarry site but estimatesare thatitcontains1-5 billionbarrelsof
oil.These estimateswere basedonover20 yearsof seismicsurveys.(Archambault,2015).

17. 2.5 Dangers of an Oil Spill in this Area
Many oil companiesare makingeffortstotryand continue oil explorationinthe Gulf of the St.
Lawrence.Howeverthere isalotof oppositiontomore oil drillinginthe Gulf fromthe fishingindustry,
the tourismindustry,andthe local population.The oppositionismostconcernedof the damage that
wouldoccur to the ecosystemsandthe speciesthatlive inthem, if anoil spill were tooccur.If one did
occur thenit wouldadverselyaffectall the ecosystemsandof the life inthe Gulf,thusimpactingthe
tourismandfishingindustries,thusaffectingthe livelihoodsof those whocall the areahome.
Chapter 3 Hydrology of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence
3.1 North Atlantic Current
Figure 6: Map of the pathway of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean (Credit: John Stoodley)
The Gulf of the St. Lawrence hasa veryunique hydrologydue tothe mixingof freshandsaltwater,as
well asthe mixingof coldand warmwater.There are three majorbodiesof waterthatfeedintothe Gulf
of the St.Lawrence.These are;the North AtlanticCurrent(alsoknownasthe Gulf Stream),the Labrador
Current,andthe St.Lawrence River(Hogan2013).

18. The Gulf Streamisthe main oceancurrentof the AtlanticOcean.Itis the maindriverof climate inthe
northernhemisphere (otherthanthe sun),andstretchesfromFloridatoWesternEurope.The warm
waterthat flowsthroughthe Gulf Streamoriginatesoff the north-westerncoastof Africa.The wateris
thenpushedwestwardstowardsSouthAmerica,where itsplitsandsome goesnorthtothe Caribbean
and some goessouthalongthe coast of SouthAmerica.The warmwaterflowsintothe Gulf of Mexico
where itisthenforcednorthwardsalongthe easterncoastof the UnitedStates.Itthencontinues until it
reachesthe eastcoast of Canadawhere itstarts headingintothe AtlantictowardsEurope.The main
forcesthat drivesthiscurrentandthe movementof somuch waterare the trade-windsandthe north
Atlanticdeepwatercirculation.The trade-windsare the prevailingwindsinthe specificlatitudinalbands
that one resides.Southof the equatortheyruneastto westand northof the equatortheyruneast to
west.The trade-windswerenamedsobecause shiptrade betweenNorthAmericaandEurope used
these windstopropel theirsailingshipsacrossthe Atlantic.The northAtlanticdeepwatercirculationis
an oceancurrent that flowsinthe lowlevelsof the AtlanticOcean.A factof wateristhat cold waterwill
flowunderwarmwater.Thisis because colderwaterisheavierandtherefore throughgravityit
naturallysinksbelow the warmwater.The northAtlanticdeepwatercirculationinvolvesthe
transportationof coldArticwater downintoequatorial regionswhere itisthenwarmedupandrisesto
the surface waters.It isthencarriedalongwiththe warm watercurrents.Whenthe water reachesthe
Articit thencoolsand sinksandthe cycle beginsagain.Some of the warm waterisable to reach the
coast of easternCanada,as the Gulf Streamwaterpassesbyon itsway to Europe.Thiswarmthen
entersthe Gulf of the St.Lawrence and warmsthe waterin the Gulf.Thisencouragesthe migrationof
warm waterfishandmammalsintothe Gulf of the St. Lawrence.(WeatherOnline 2015).

19. 3.2 The Labrador Current
Figure 7: A map of the pathway of the Labrador Current (Credit: Wikipedia)
The secondoceancurrent that affectsthe Gulf of the St. Lawrence isthe Labrador Current.The Labrador
Currentisa coldoceancurrent that runsof the Northerncoastof Labrador. The waterthat flowsinto
the Labrador Currentoriginatesof the coastof Greenland.Itflowsintothe northernislandsof Canada,
and thenitflowssouthwardsintothe LabradorCurrentof the Northeasterncoastof Canada.However
much of thiscold waterdoesn’tmake itintothe Gulf of the St.Lawrence because Newfoundlandblocks
mostof it.Therefore the LabradorCurrentdoesn’taffectthe Gulf of the St. Lawrence asmuch as the
Gulf Stream.Howeveritisstill greatlyaffectsthe Gulf of the St.Lawrence because itbringsincoldArtic
water.The Labrador Currentis part of the northAtlanticdeepwatercirculation,whichasprevious
statedtransportscoldArtic watersouthwardstoequatorial regions.(Joannaetal.2015).

20. Howeversome coldwaterdoesmanage tomake it intothe Gulf of the St. Lawrence.Thiscoldwater
thenentersthe Gulf of the St.Lawrence and coolsthe waterinthe Gulf.Thisencouragesthe migration
of coldwaterfishandmammalsintothe Gulf of the St. Lawrence.
3.3 Watershed of the Gulf: the St. Lawrence River
Figure 8: Drainage basin of the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Credit: Environment Canada)
The drainage basinof the Gulf of the St.Lawrence isthe St.Lawrence River,andit isone of the largestin
the world.It incorporatesintoitall of the lakesandriversineasternCanadaand the northeastern
UnitedStates,the biggestcontributorsbeingthe GreatLakes.There are many riversthatfeedfresh
waterintothe Gulf of the St. Lawrence however,mostof these firstfeedintothe St.Lawrence Riverand
thenthe riverfeedsthe freshwaterdirectlyinto the Gulf of the St.Lawrence.The drainage basinhasan
area of 1.6 millionsquare kilometersanddrains25% of all the freshwateron Earth.(Environment
Canada,2015).

21. The main contributorstothe St. Lawrence Riverare the Ottawa River,the SaguenayRiver,the
ManicouaganRiver,the St-Maurice River,andthe RichelieuRiver.The actual St.Lawrence Riverruns
fromLake Ontarioto Kingston,toMontreal andthen widensinto the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. Severalof
Canada’scitiesare situatedalongthese rivers (aswellasthe Great Lakes) andcollectively theyhave a
great impacton the qualityof the waterinthe rivers.Almosteverysingle cityonEarth hasurban runoff,
whichoccurs whena cityexperiencesprecipitationorfloodingof some kind.The rainwatersimplysits
on topof the ground,since the urban landisimpermeable.Duringthistime the waterabsorbslarge
amountsof contaminants,includingalarge amountof nitratesandphosphatesinthe waterdue tothe
run-off of agricultural land.This contaminatedwaterthenflowsintothe riversouttowardthe Gulf of
the St. Lawrence andaffectsthe ecosystemsall alongthe way.(Marsh,2015).
3.4 Conclusion
The Gulf of the St. Lawrence ina veryunique situation due tothe mixingof saltandfresh water,aswell
as warm and coldwater.Thismixingallowsforthe creationof estuarieswhichare transitionzone
betweensaltwaterareasandfreshwaterareas.Theyare rare ecosystemsthathouse adiverse amount
of speciesinit. The Gulf of the St.Lawrence isone of the most diverse areasinall of Canadain termsof
life.The nextsectionsof thisreportwillconsistsof examiningthe ecosystemsof the Gulf anditsspecies.
Chapter 4: The Ecology of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence
Canada isalreadyunique inthe factthat itscoastlinestouchonthree differentmajoroceans:
the Pacific,Arcticand AtlanticOceans.Ona much smallerscale,the Gulf of the St.Lawrence inEastern
Canada isunique inthatit touchesonthree provinces aswell as twostatesinthe US. Aswell,the Gulf is
ecologicallyrich,asthe St.Lawrence Riverflowsintothe AtlanticOcean.Thus,there isa gradientof
freshto saltwater,creatinga wide varietyof habitats.Variable floodingconditionshave also helpedin
creatinga myriadof habitats,bothterrestrial andaquatic(DesgrangesandJobin,2003).

22. Canada signedthe Conventionof Biological Diversityin1992 at Riode Janeiroandenactedthe
OceansAct fouryearslaterin 1996. The OceansAct is significantinthatitdefinesarequirementto
protectthe speciesthatlive inmarine habitats,the ecosystemsthesespecieslive inandthe overall
healthof the ocean.It alsoacknowledgesthatthese oceansare the commonheritage of all Canadians.
However,Canadaisexperiencingwhatsomanyotherregionsinthe worldare strugglingwith,including
invasive species,overfishing,lossof habitatandfoodwebsbeingaffectedbythe removal of target
speciesandbycatch(Archambaultetal.,2010).
It was estimatedin2003 that 10% of at riskvascularfloraand 27% of at riskherpetofaunacalled
the wetlandsinthe Gulf home.Some 6000 specieswere foundtobreedalongthe St.Lawrence Riverin
Quebecandsome estimatessuggestupto27 000 speciesinthe area; the majorityof whichhave yetto
be discovered. Itshouldbe notedthatthe majorityof unknownspeciesare microorganisms –bacteria,
fungi andviruses – and insects.Theymake upa large amountof biomassandare significanttothe
upkeepof ecological healthandproductivity (DesgrangesandJobin,2003).
To put numbersonhowlarge the St. Lawrence Riverandthe Gulf of the St. Lawrence area is,it
was foundthatin Quebecthe drainage basinscoveranareaof 57 000 km2
.Includedinthisareaare
more than 4000 km2
of shorelines,unique ecosystemsand abroad diversityof habitats.399 speciesof
birds(aquaticandterrestrial) were foundinjustthe Quebecportionof the St.Lawrence area.The area
withthe highestrichnesswasthe Islandof Montreal andsurroundingislands(with327 species) andthe
poorestareawas aroundthe LowerNorthshore.Inthe case of the latter,itis difficulttoaccessand
manyspeciespresentmaynothave beenrecordedyetdue toa lack of birdwatchers(Desgrangesand
Jobin,2003).

23. Giventhe complexityof the St.Lawrence area,especiallythe aquaticecosystems,itisunlikely
that a full understandingof boththe speciesandthe communitiesthatlive there will everbe obtained
(DesgrangesandJobin,2003).
Chapter 5: Major Ecosystems of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence
5.1 Terrestrial ecosystems
Terrestrial ecologistsknowthatanexcellentwaytodetermineenvironmentalhealthandhow
well anecosystemisfaringistolookat the biodiversityof anarea(Archambaultetal.,2010). An analysis
on the primarybreedinghabitatsof birdsinthe St.Lawrence wasdone.It wasfoundthat about41%
preferredaquatichabitats,36%had a preference forforestedhabitatsand23% had a penchantfor
urban andagricultural areas.Consideringthe amountof migratoryspeciesthatfrequentterrestrial
ecosystems,the decreaseinspeciesrichnessfromupstreamtodownstreaminthe St.Lawrence is
expected. Thisoverall patternisparticularlynoticeableforspeciesthatfrequenthardwood-dominated
forests,while coniferous-frequentingspecieshadamore uniformdistribution(regardlessof ahigher
abundance inthe AppalachiansandLaurentians). Inthe Laurentians,anareareferredtoCap Tourmente
has extremelyhigh biodiversityandisone of five areasof highspeciesrichnessintermsof
herpetofauna,birdsandvascularflora.Thisparticularareaalsohasa significantamountof at-risk
species(DesgrangesandJobin,2003).
It has alsobeenfoundthatforestfireshelpwiththe healthof forestsbyimprovinglandscape-
level productivityandshade-tolerantspeciesconservation.Despitethis,theyalsocome withheavy
costs,includinginfrastructuredamage,highsuppressioncostsandthe decline of harvestable forest
duringmore severe fire years.Frequency(andpossiblyseverity) of forestfiresislikelytoincrease with
the warmingtemperaturesof climate change (Terrieretal.,2013).

24. 5.2 Estuarine ecosystems
Wetlandsact as the middle groundbetweenterrestrialandaquaticecosystems,and the societal
benefitstheyprovide are wellknown.These include habitatforwildlife,protectionfromfloodsand
coastal erosion,improvementstowaterqualityandwastewatertreatment. Bothsaltwatermarshesand
freshwaterwetlandsshare the commonality thattheyare low-energyenvironmentswithverylittle
turbulence.Thus,thismakesthemparticularlysusceptibletothe stressesassociatedwithorganic
chemical pollution,includinghydrocarbonsassociatedwithoilandgas(Venosaetal.,2002). Near
Cornwall,Ontario,itwasfoundviaseasonal studiesin1995 and1996 that there are strong
biogeochemical gradientsbetweenawetland,acreek,embaymentsandthe St.Lawrence River.Since
the differencesare more significantata local scale than the overall lengthof the river,thisindicatesthe
importance of near-shore ecosystems(like wetlandsandestuaries)tothe rivercarboncycle (Barth and
Veizer,1999).
Unique tothe St.Lawrence area, the LowerSt. Lawrence Estuarycoversan area of 1300km2
and
itswater isbothdeepandhypoxicinnature (Archambaultetal.,2010). Phytoplankton,chemosythetic
microbes,macroalgae andangiospermflora (more commonlyknownasfloweringplants) are widely
consideredtobe the majorprimaryproducersintemperate ecosystems.Because of this,theyare able
to supportotherorganismsinthe ecosystem, suchasheterotropicmicrobes,zooplankton,nektonand
benthicinvertebrates.Betweenall these groups,theyare able tocreate by-productsfromprimaryand
secondaryproductionthatsupportotherecosystemfunctionslikenutrient cycling(Strongetal.,2015).
Because of the nature of the LowerSt. Lawrence Estuary,the phytoplanktonbloomthatoccursinthe
springisrelativelylate,aroundmid-June,buthighbiomasspersiststhroughoutthe summermonths.It
has alsobeeninferredthatthe estuaryisof significance toCalanusfinmarchiusproduction.Thisis
because the amountof zooplanktonbiomassmaybe heavilyinfluencedbythe residual surface
circulation(Plourdeand Runge,1993).

25. Figure 9: the St. Lawrence Estuary and where it widens into the Gulf (Source: Fisheries and Oceans Canada)
Estuariesconstantlygetnutrientsfromfreshwatersources,but whathappenstothe inputsis
not as well known(Fisheretal.,1988). Temperate estuariesworldwide are currentlyexperiencingmajor
changesinboth oceanographyandecologyasa response tohumanexploitationandpollution.This
includesmore sedimentationandturbidity,more intenseperiodsof hypoxia(highamountsof oxygen)
and anoxia(minimal/nooxygen).Thisispartlyworsened bythe overfishingof oysters,whichgraze algae
effectivelytothe pointitminimizesthe symptomsof eutrophicationand therefore leadstothe
reductionof the riskof algal blooms. Large vertebratessuchasgray whales(whichare now extinctin
the Atlantic),belugas,giantsturgeonandsharkswere all abundantinthe ChesapeakeBayareabut now
almostgone (Jacksonetal.,2001).

26. 5.3 Marine ecosystems
Out of the three oceans,EasternCanada isthe most well-knownandcan be describedmost
adequatelybydividingitupintoregions.Inthe northernpart,the Labrador Currentmovessouthinto
the Grand Banks,where itmeetsthe Gulf of the St.Lawrence.The Gulf of the St. Lawrence getsabout
600 km3
of freshwaterdischargesayearto the westof Newfoundland.Here,itisalmostanenclosed
shallowsea. Italsoincludesacatchmentarea of 6x106
km2
.
Figure 10: The St. Lawrence River (Credit: Leeds Grenville)
A regionunique inbothhydrologyandecology,the Bayof Fundyhas the highesttidal amplitude
inthe world,at16 metersor 53 feet.The energyfromthese tides(whichisaround2000 timesgreater
than that Gulf experiencesindailydischarge) helpstofuel highlyproductiveandspeciesrichecosystem.
Thisin turndefinesthe surroundingenvironmentaswell asthe tourismandfishingindustriesinthe
region. Intermsof the three oceansthatsurroundCanada, the part of the AtlanticOceanthatEastern
Canada isa part of issecond-mostimportantinregardstophytoplanktondiversity,withatotal of 626
taxa.Of these 626 phytoplanktontaxa,274 are diatoms,190 are dinoflagellates,41are
prymnesiophytes,29are choanoflagellatesand27 are prasinophytes (Archambaultetal.,2010).

27. Figure 11: A comparison of low tide (left) and high tide (right) at Hopewell Cape in the Bay of Fundy (Credit: Kathleen J. Wile)
Chapter 6: Anthropogenic Pressures on the Habitats, Flora and Fauna of
the Gulf
Nearlyall threatenedspeciesliveinanarrow piece thatrunsalong a corridoralongthe St.
Lawrence River.Ithas beenespeciallydifficulttocreate protectedlands,consideringhow littlepublic
landremainsinthe area. Thisisproblematicasthis area inparticularissubjectto mostof the pressure
exertedbyhumandevelopment.Thisispartlybecause populationgrowthandactivityinQuebecand
alongthe St. Lawrence hasledto the deteriorationof riparianhabitats,notablyinthe Montreal
Archipelago. Manyspecieshave alsobeenonthe decline aswetlandshave gottensmaller.Thisisof
particularimportance giventhe productivityof wetlands,especiallythose inthe UpperSt.Lawrence
Uplandsthat are locatedinthe mouthsof riversand within archipelagosanddeltacomplexes
(DesgrangesandJobin,2003).
For estuaries,aloomingproblemisnitrogenloadingfromcoastal watersheds. A veryspecific
case of thisis the eutrophicationof eelgrassbeds. Thisisinfluencedinpartby humanpopulation,
wastewaterproductionandlanduse,amongotherthings.InsevenestuariesinNew Brunswick,the total
loadwas the resultof watershedandestuarysize whilethe loadrate wasconnectedtothe watershed
populationdensity. Thisissignificantasimpactsof nitrogenloadingleadsincreasedplanktonic,

28. epiphyticandbenthicalgae.Thisinturnleadstolesslightenteringthe watercolumn,more direct
shadingfromovergrowthandan acceleratedconsumptionof oxygenwhere the soil bedmeetsthe
water.Residence timeof waterwithinthe estuaryinfluencesthe chancesof analgal bloomoccurring
(McIveret al.,2015). As previouslystatedinsection2.3,the degradationof estuaries ispartlyworsened
by the overfishingof oysters,whichgraze algae effectivelytothe pointitminimizesthe symptomsof
eutrophicationandreducesthe riskof algal blooms. Large vertebratessuchasgraywhales(whichare
nowextinctinthe Atlantic),belugas,giantsturgeonandsharkswere all abundantinthe Chesapeake Bay
area butnow almostgone (Jacksonetal.,2001)
Generallyspeakingforforesthabitats (includingthose aroundthe St.Lawrence),itisagreedthat
the frequencyof forestfireswill increasethiscenturyasa response toclimate change.Howeverthisis
underthe assumptionthe compositionof vegetationwill remainthe same overthe upcomingdecades.
Thisis importantasit isexpectedthathigh-latitudeboreal forestsinparticularwillbe affectedbecause
of this(Terrieretal.,2013). However,due tothe locationof thispaperbeinginQuebec,justnorthof the
St. Lawrence Riverandthe Gulf of the St. Lawrence,itispossible thatforestsclosertothe Gulf may be
affectedinthe future.
Historical datais significantinecologicallysensitiveareassuchasthe St.Lawrence,as most
ecological researchisbasedonlocal fieldstudiesthatmayonlybe fora few yearsin duration;aswell,
the majorityof these studiestake place afterthe 1950s without lookingatissuesorimpactsfroma long-
termperspective (Jacksonetal.,2001).
Chapter 7: Resources of the Gulf
7.1 Fishing, Tourism and their Significance
The Gulf of St. Lawrence hasprovento have a highlyproductive ecosystemthatcontainsvarious
differentplantsandanimalsof differentshapesand sizes.Whatisevenmore interestingisthatthe
bedrockand sedimentsof the Gulf containa lotof resources,fromnon-fuel mineralssuchassand and

29. gravel to fossil fuelssuchascoal,oil,gas and hydrates(Bewersetal.,1974). These distinctqualitiesof
the Gulf combine tocreate a unique environment. Withall of thisinmind,one can note how valuable
thiscan be to the economyof the surroundingprovinces.
In the 15th century,withthe discoveryof the New Worldwasthe discoveryof the fishresources
of the Gulf.The firstEuropeansto travel here calledit“the Riverof Cod”,due to the abundance of the
cod fish.The cod fish,aswell asotherfishbecame animportantsource of foodforEuropeansandwas a
vital fortrade,industrial developmentandeconomicexpansionbetweenEurope andthe Newfoundland
communities(Lear,1998).The fishingindustry,whichconsistsof fishing,fishprocessingaswell as
aquaculture hadmade up to $1.5 billioninrevenuesperyearin2006 and 2007 (Alexanderetal.,2010).
As of today,the fishingindustryhassufferedinrecentyears,buthasdiversifiedintermsof fishing
activitiesoverthe lastfewyearsinresponse tothe declineof codfishandsome otherground fish.The
declinesinpopulationare mainly due tooverfishingandnatural predators.Several mitigationmeasures
such as introducingbansandcertainfishingpermitshave beensetupinorderto restore the codfish
populationandotherground fishtotheirnormal levels(Swain,2009).
Figure 12: Exploitation rate by commercial fisheries on Southern Gulf cod (Source: Swain, 2009)
The fur trade,shipbuildingandshippingdevelopedandplayedanimportantpartinthe history
of the historyof the countrythanks to the Gulf.However,the twomost notable industriestothrive from

30. thisunique ecosystemare fishingandtourismwhichnotonlyconstitutethe mainactivitiesof todaybut
alsoplaya part inthe heritage andlifestyle whichhave definedthe social developmentof itsinhabitants
for several centuries(Archambault,2014).
As fortourism,giventhe Gulf’suniqueecosystem, the industryincludescruises,recreational
fishingandcoastal tourism andhas generatednearly$0.8billion(Alexanderetal.,2010). Together,
these twoactivitiesaccountfortensof thousandsof jobson whichcoastal communitiesdependonthe
Gulf for theirlivelihoodandshowsusthe social,economicandcultural significance thattheyplayapart
of.
Figure 13: The Basins of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (Source: Hydro-Quebec, 2002)
7.2: History of Offshore Oil Drilling in the Gulf
The Gulf of SaintLawrence primarilyconsistsof twolarge sedimentarybasinsfromwhich
petroleumreservescouldbe located.The Anticosti Basin,ismade upof a shelf of carbonate rockssuch
as limestone whichisseveral kilometersthickandisfromthe OrdovicianPeriod,whichisroughlyabout
415-490 millionyearsold.The Madeleine Basinconsistsof several saltdomes,andisfromthe
Carboniferousperiodwhichis350 millionyearsold(OwensandBowen,1972).Accordingto geologists,
since the Madeleine Basinisfromthe Carboniferousperiodandcontainsmanysaltdomes,itismore
favorable forthe presence of oil andgas(Andre andPittet,2011).

31. The firstoil drillingthathappenedin the Gulf couldbe datedbackto 1860. However,real
developmentstartedtotake place duringthe 1960s whenpetroleumseismologywentthrougha
revolutionwiththe arrival of digitaltechnology.Sincethe fall of 1942, a total of 10 exploratorywellshad
beendrilled.Mostof themhave beeninthe Madeleine Basinsince because of the saltdomes.Hydro-
Quebec,agovernmentownedpublicutility,receivedthe licensesandmandate toexplore the Gulf of
SaintLawrence Estuaryin 1963 whichleadtothe firstdrilling inthe Gulf at BrionIslandin1970
(Archambalt, 2014). Duringthe 1970s and the 1980s, SOQUIP(Societe Quebecoise d’Initiatives
Petrolieres),whichwascreatedbythe province of Quebectoevaluate hydrocarbonpotential,
eventuallyreceivedthe licensestoexplore the Gulf of SaintLawrence Estuary.SOQUIPS’s findingsdidn’t
turn outto be as fruitful asexpected,since theirstudiesconductedinthe regionof Quebecshowedthat
there waslittle hydrocarbonpotential gas(Andre andPittet,2011).In 1997, the licenseesonce againgot
transferredbackto Hydro-Quebec,once theyformedanOil andGas subdivision(Archambault,2014).
The discoveryof oil inPort-au-Port,whichislocatedonthe westcoastof Newfoundland
boostedoil explorationinthe regionin1995. Because of thisnews,the QuebecMinisterof Natural
ResourcesandWildlifegave licensesforcompaniestoexplore inthe Gulf of SaintLawrence.One such
companywas CorridorResources,aprivate resource company.Theywere able togainthe license to
explore the OldHarrySectoras shownby Figure 3. CorridorResourcesmentionedthatthe OldHarry
geological structure hasworthabout1 to 5 billionbarrelsworthof Oil orGas due to it beingavast salt
dome.However,itshouldbe notedthatthe OldHarry structure has notyetbeendrilledsothere isstill
no wayto determine whetherthere are anyhydrocarbonspresentorwhattype theymay be gas (Andre
and Pittet,2011).
Today,due to environmental concernsandthe highprice of offshore drilling.The Energy
StrategyPlanwasintroducedbythe QuebecMinisterof Natural Resourcesin2006 and will be continue
on forthe next10 years.The planconsistsof workingincollaborationwithotherprovincessuchasNova

32. Scotia,Newfoundland,BritishColumbiaandthe federal government.Thisincludessettingsafety
standardsfor seismicsurveyboatssothattheyhave little tonoimpacton the marine mammal
populations.Italsocontainssettingcommonstandardsbetweentourism,fisheriesandseismic survey
worksince theyare all important.Lastly,there shouldbe commonstandardsof practice intermsof
environmental assessmentsbetweenthe federal governmentandthe provincial government
(Governmentof Quebec,2006).
In termsof findingoil andgas,companiessuchas Shell,PetrocanandevenSOQUIPhave tried
theirluckbut 90% of theirdrillingswere negative andshowedonlytracesof gas.So,drillinginthe Gulf is
a huge topic of debate since there are concernsthatit mightimpactthe unique ecosysteminanegative
manner(Archambault,2014).
Figure 13: Drilled Sites and Old Harry Project by Corridor Resources (Source: Corridor Resources)

33. Chapter 8: Process of Oil and Gas Exploration
8.1 How the system works and the players involved
In orderto explore the Gulf of SaintLawrence,one mustgetanexplorationlicense.Thislicense
will grantthe saidcompanysole accessto the area.For example,CorridorResourceshasanexploration
license forOldHarry(Fitzpatrick,2013). However,thisdoesnotmeanthattheyhave the license todrill.
In orderto do that,one must go throughan environmental assessment.Asof today,there isnoongoing
explorationwork,butmanyprojectsare beingtakenintoconsiderationforthe future.
ExplorationLicense:Who has them?
Betweenthe yearsof 1996 to 1997, Quebechadgrantedseveral explorationlicenses.Corridor
Resourceshastwoof these.One giventothembyQuebecprovincial governmentandthe otherbythe
Canada-NewfoundlandandLabradorOffshore PetroleumBoardsince two-thirdsof the OldHarry
geological structure ininOldHarry while the restisinNewfoundland(Koop,2011).AlthoughCorridor
Resourcesdoesnothave muchexperience inthe marine environment,itsmainpurposeistoexplore for
oil and gas mainlyinplaceslike NewBrunswickandthe Anticosti Island.However,itisimportanttonote
that the federal governmentsuspended(Archambault,2014).
Eightexplorationlicenseswere handedoutbyQuebectothe SkyHunter Explorationwhichisa
small private companythatmade instrumentstolocate the presence of oil andgasfroma plane.
However,itisimportanttonote that all of these licenseshave since thenbeensuspended.Thiswasdue
to the fact that the federal governmentneverrecognizedtheselicensesandthatQuebecneverhadan
agreementwiththe federal governmentintermsof managingoil andgas inthe Gulf.SkyHunter
Explorationhave since thennolongeranyintenttoexploreordrill inthe nearfuture while Corridor
Resourceshasfocusedits’resourcesonthe Newfoundlandside of the structure (Koop, 2011).

34. On the otherhand,NewfoundlandandLabradordidnothave to go throughthis ordeal.Besides
the one givenoutto CorridorResourcesforthe OldHarry site,five licenseshave beengivenouttoShall
PointEnergyand Enegi Oil,whichare bothsmall private companieswhose mainpurposeistodetermine
oil and gas inthe Gulf (Koop,2011).
Figure 14: Oil exploration licenses in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Sources: C-NLOPB, MRN)
8.2 Seismic Surveying & Oil Drilling
In orderto findthe presence of oil andgas,seismicsurveysmustfirstbe carriedout.Thisis
done because of variousreasons.The firstisbecause since offshore drillingisveryexpensive.One
offshore exploratorydrillestimatesabout$50 to $60 million(Sylvian,2014),therefore itisimportantto
be firstmake sure that the areacontainsthe desiredresource.Furthermore,seismicsurveys provide
informationaboutthe geological formationsunderneaththe Earth’ssurface suchas depth,positionand
shape.Asa result,oil andgas explorerswouldbe able tofindthe rightlocationandsize of oil andgas
reservoirs(MRCSP,2010).

35. Seismicsurveyscanbe offshore andonshore,butinthiscase it’soffshore.A typical offshore
seismicsurveywouldconsistof asurveyvessel travellingatthe speedof 4.5 to 5 knots.Itcontains
compressedairgunsthat are firedinsynchronyintothe waterwitha constant interval of 10 to 15
seconds.Once the waveshave travelledtothe subsurface rocklayers,theygetreflectedoff andtravel
back up to the hydrophones,whichrecordthe reflectedenergythatthe seismicvessel hastowed
(MRCSP,2010). This processcan go onfrom daysto monthsdependingonthe area.
Withthe data received,scientistsanalyze itingreatdetail andare able to create maps of the
structure underneaththe earth’ssurface thatmighthave the potential resource.A perfectanalogyto
understandhowseismicsurveysworkisthe wayultrasoundisusedinmedicine(MRSCP,2010).
Figure 15: Seismic Surveys in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence (Source: www.biologicaldiversity.org)
Processof Oil Drilling
To start an offshore well,athick,large diameterconductorpipe isembeddedinthe seafloor.
Withthe aidof bit,whichis placedinside the conductorpipe,the jetsawaythe sedimentwithhigh
pressure seawater.A blowoutpreventerisinstalledonthe topof the surface of the crust, to prevent
hydrocarbonsfromescapingintothe environment.Whenthe conductorhaspenetratedabout250 feet,

36. the jetbit isretrievedandreplacedwithadrill bit.Itisnecessarytopreventthe hydrocarbonsfrom
enteringthe hole thatisbeingdrilled,whichiscalledawellbore.Once drillingiscomplete,the wellbore
isopenedupso that hydrocarbonscannow flow intothe hole.A special equipmentisinstalledatthe
wellheadtocontrol the flowof hydrocarbonsandcollectthem(Offshore OperationsSubgroup,2011).
Chapter 9: Impacts of Oil Exploration
9.1 Environmental Impacts and Mitigations for Each Stage
The oil explorationcycle mayprove beneficial toCanada’seconomyif oil ornatural gasis found
but at whatcost? Therefore,itisimportanttoknow whatsort of impactseachstage has on the Gulf of
St. Lawrence’secosystem.If any,whatisbeingdone toaddressthe issue?
SeismicSurveying
An airgun, whenfiredwillrange from230 to 240 dB (decibels)whichisextremelyloud.Itis
importantto note thatsoundwavestravel at a differentdensityinwatersoa soundwave noise inair
wouldbe heardat a differentvolume levelinwater.The noise carriedoutbyone seismicsurveycan
travel thousandsof kilmoters^2andraisesup the ambientnoise levelby20 dB than normal (Weildgart,
2013).
Recentexperimentshave shownthatfishatmuch closedrange whenexposedata muchclosed
range of a seismicsurveycansufferpermanenthearingdamage while verylittletonodamage at a
distantrange.Suchlarge noise levelscandisruptcommunicationbetweenfishaswell asfeedinghabits
like thatof the marine faunawhichrelyonsound.Furthermore,itcaninjure fishthathave a swim
bladder,destroyeggsof the aquaticwildlifeandevencause the fishtomove outof theirnatural habitat.
Otherimpactsthat couldhappentomarine life are behavioral disruptionandphysiological.Basicallythe
closera fishisto the vessel where the soundoriginatedfrom, the damage causedwouldbe more likely
and severe. However,marine life israrelyexposedtosuchhigh noise level fromairgunssince theytry

37. to avoiditif possible (Weildgart,2013).In the Gulf of SaintLawrence,notenoughresearchhasbeen
done to studythe impactsthat seismicsurveyshave onthe marine life.
Mitigation
In Canada,it isrequiredforoperatorsforthe seismicsurveystage togeta permitfirstbefore
operatingandfollowcertainstepstomake sure thatthere will be little tonoimpactonthe marine
environment.These stepsincludethe following:
•Making sure not to operate where there isahighdensityof fishorendangeredspecies.
•To be aware of the range where animalsare probablygoingtogetinjuredandcomparingitto
the air gun noise level (NovasekandBroker,2013).
•To firstdosoundwavesat a softernoise levelsothatthe marine life will goawayfromthe area
(NovasekandBroker,2013)
•If a fishor marine mammal isspotted,itisimportanttostop the operationtill the areais
cleared.
The followingstepsshouldensure thatthe nexttime aseismicsurveyiscarried out,itwould
pose no threatto the marine ecosystem.
Oil Drilling
Drillingforoil isthe onlymeanstodetermine the presence of oil andgas.Whenoil istakenout
of the earth’ssurface bydrilling,there isapossibilityof chemicalssuchasleador mercury,whichcould
potentiallyharmseamammalsorwhales,tocome up withthe oil (Horton,2008). Inthe Gulf,
endangeredspecieslike the spermwhaleandotherhuge marine mammalscouldbe avictimof collision
withvesselsoroil rigsalthoughitis a veryrare case.One environmentalimpactsof anoil drillingcould

38. be air pollution.Withotheranthropogenicfactorsalreadycontributingtoairpollution,oil drillingadsto
that by contributing89%of Carbon monoxide and66% of sulfurdioxide(SouthernEnvironmental Law
Center,2010).
Afterdrillinghasbeendone,oil spill posesanotherseriousrisktothe marine life.Thishappens
whenthe shipthatcarries the oil fromone place to anotherisleakedintothe sea/ocean.Althoughithas
not happened inthe Gulf of SaintLawrence,itisimportanttostudyits impacts.
Spillscanprove verydeadlyforbirdsthatrelyon the sea/oceanforfoodor cleaningthemselves
up.The mostprobable reasoncouldbe due to ingestion.Anotherimpactthatspillscan have on birds,is
that whentheygetincontact withoil,theygetstuckto it causingthemto eitherfreezetodeathor
drown(Ober,2011).
As formarine mammalsandfish,the oil can cause damage to the animal’slungsorliver.Like the
birds,the mostprobable cause of deathby an oil spill isdue toingestion.Whenafishormarine
mammal,hasingestedoil,itmayfinditdifficulttoeatfoodsince cellsinthe intestinaltractcan get
damaged.Thiscan alsoaffectspeciesthathave notevencome close tothe oil spill.Anoil spill canmake
the preynot edible forthe predatorthuscausingitto starve or looksomewhere else.Forexample,prey
organismsthatonlyreside inthe areawhere the oil spill hasoccurredcouldprove disastrousforthe
predatorssince theywill have nofoodresource,thusdisruptingthe foodchain(U.SFishandWildlife
Service,2010).
Mitigation

39. Althoughstrictmitigationmeasuresare alreadyinplace inCanada,mistakeshappenfromtime
to time.Therefore itisimportanttostickto these measurestoensure thatthe probabilityof erroris
reduced.
•Specializedequipmentsuchasthe blowoutpreventerisinstalledduringeverydrilltomake
sure that there will be nolossof hydrocarbonsanddischarge intothe ocean/sea(EnvironmentHealth
and SafetyAffairs,2015).
•To trainthe employeescorrectly,sothattheywill be able toidentifyandrespondtoanoil spill
ina correct manner(EnvironmentHealthandSafetyAffairs,2015).
•To repairandmonitorthe equipmenteveryfew weeks(UCSanDiego,2015).
•To be aware of the potential risksthatcouldoccurand identifywaytomake sure minimal
environmental impactsoccurs(EnvironmentHealthandSafetyAffairs,2015).
•Addingfertilizertoenhance the biodegradationof residualoil (Venosaetal,2002)
9.2: Socioeconomic Impacts
Withthe oil andgas explorationgoingoninthe gulf,itisimportanttoidentifythe
socioeconomicimpacts.Ithelpsthe provincial andfederal governmentsee if itisworthdrillinginthe
desiredlocation.
Positive impactscouldinclude:
•Givesopportunitiestolocal businessesthatoperate aroundthe Gulf
•Createslotsof jobs,especiallyforthose impactedby downturnin the fishingindustry
•Findingoil,cancreate a lot of revenue forthe province, whichcanleadtoa distributionof
wealth(CanadianAssociationof PetroleumProducers,2015).

40. Negative impactscouldinclude:
•Commercial fishingwill be affectedsince offshore rigs,whichusuallycoverslarge sectionsof
the water,will take overthe areahence fishingwillnotbe allowedthere.
•Oil spillsandpollutioncanreduce catchesforfisherman.
•Offshore drillingiscostsabout$50 to $60 millionwhichisveryexpensive (Archambault,2014).
It wouldbe veryimportanttoconsiderbothsidesbefore makingfuture decisionsaboutoil
drillinginthe Gulf.
Conclusion
It was foundthatbecause of the two currentsthat influence the Gulf,there isalarge amountof
biodiversityandavarietyof habitatsuncommontomany otherareasin Canada.Withinthese
ecosystems,alarge proportionof species(bothfloraandfauna) are consideredtobe at risk.A looming
problemisthata goodproportionof these at-riskspecieslivealonganarrow piece of the St. Lawrence
Riverandputtingaside protectedlandcanbe difficultdue tothe lackof publicland.Forestuaries,
eutrophicationasaresultof run-off isan issue due tomanycities,townsandvillagesaswell as
agricultural landthatare basedalong the St. Lawrence River.
The AtlanticOceannear the easterncoastof NorthAmericaandthe Gulf (since itcan be
consideredaninlandsea) are experiencingthe same issuesasmanyotherregions –including
overfishing,climatechange andincreasingsealevelsandtemperatures.However,all of these issuesare
complex enoughindividuallyone couldwrite manypaperstryingtoencompassthe entire problem.The
shorelinesalongthe Gulf andthe St. Lawrence Riverbothface a fairamountof pressure asa result of
populationgrowthandincreasedactivity(botheconomical andrecreational).Thispressure hasbeen
consistentsince Europeansettlersfirstarrivedinthe 1600s.

41. Althoughpreviousattemptstofindoil andgasin the Gulf has come up unsuccessful,there still
runs the possibilityof adecentlysizeddepositunderneaththe OldHarrySaltDome.However,the risks
of oil drillingshouldnotbe ignored,astwoof the largestaccidentsinthe oil industryinrecenthistory
occurredduringthe exploratoryphase.Aswell,effectsonmarine lifeasa resultof seismicsurveyingare
knownto occur.
Future areasof researchshouldinclude betterunderstandingthe ecosystemsstatedinChapters
4 and 5, so a clearerpicture of howanthropogenicpressuresinfluences them.Aswell,findingmore
informationaboutthe oil depositsmaybe helpful –inparticulargettinga more exactlocationas well as
the qualityandquantityof oil present.Itmayalsobe beneficial tostudythe exactrepercussions onthe
tourism,fishingandwildlifeof whatwouldhappenif anoil accident(explosion,spill,etc.) weretooccur
inthe region.Workingwiththe publicwouldbe necessarywithall threeareasof research,asthey
wouldprovide useful geographicinformation,local historyandtheiropinionsandviewsonoil drillingin
the region.
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