Welcome to Expert Topic, a new feature for International Aquafeed. Each issue will take an in-depth look at a particular species and how its feed is managed.

1. November | December 2012
EXPERT TOPIC - SALMON
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The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

2. EXPERT T●PIC
EXPERT TOPIC
SALMON Welcome to Expert Topic, a new feature for International Aquafeed. Each issue
will take an in-depth look at a particular species and how its feed is managed.
30 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | november-December 2012

3. EXPERT T●PIC
ᕡᕣ
ᕤ
ᕥ
ᕢ
ᕡ
Atlantic seaweeds from integrated multi-trophic aquacul-
ture farms. Of the fish farmed in Atlantic Canada,
approximately 60 percent is exported to the
ed association that has been working on behalf
of the salmon farming industry in the mari-
time region since 1987. The ACFFA represents
Canada United States.
Canada has vast and dynamic ecosystems
and while some farm management practices vary
over 95 percent of salmon production in New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia in addition to a wide
range of businesses and organization in the supply
depending on the environment, no Canadian and service, technological and research sectors.
by Pamela Parker, Executive Director, salmon producer uses hormones, dyes or chemi- The ACFFA takes a leadership role in the
Atlantic Canada Fish Farmers cals in their feed and our farmed salmon is not development and implementation of strategies
Association, Canada genetically modified. Less than three percent of that are focused on fish health and welfare,
salmon feed contains an antibiotic. environmental stewardship, innovation and social
A
Because salmon farming is science-based, responsibility within our communities.
tlantic Canada is the birthplace of our environmental and fish health management
Canada’s salmon farming industry. practices are continually changing and improving More InforMatIon:
Canada’s first commercial harvest of as new research or technology emerges. Website: www.atlanticfishfarmers.com
farmed Atlantic salmon in took place Canada leads the development of fishmeal and
in Lord’s Cove, Deer Island in 1979. fish oil replacement in salmon feed. In the 1990s,
wild fish based ingredients in feeds were as high as
Today, aquaculture is a $2.1 billion industry in 80 per cent. Today, it’s as low as 20 per cent.
Canada, employing over 15,000 workers. Atlantic Canadian feed producers work with
Atlantic Canada produces approximately top researchers to develop their own feed using
55,000 metric tonnes of salmon annually, 30 per local ingredients whenever possible. The fish
cent of Canada’s farmed salmon production. The waste from our processing facilities is now
sector is one of the region’s biggest economic being used to produce other animal feeds
drivers generating over $435 million in revenue (pets, poultry) so that we are a net protein
and employing over 3,500 people. In many rural producer.
coastal communities, salmon farming is the major All the salmon farming companies
employer and further growth potential exists. operating in eastern Canada are pri-
Both production and employment are poised vately owned and operated by Atlantic
to grow significantly in the near future with the Canadians. Our salmon farmers are pas-
launch of Nova Scotia’s aquaculture development sionate and hardworking people who are
strategy and with continued focus on develop- committed to building a locally based,
ment in Newfoundland. Salmon is already the globally competitive and environmentally
largest agri-food export in New Brunswick. sustainable industry that will continue
Although the vast majority of finfish farmers to bring prosperity to our coastal com-
grow salmon, many companies are growing munities.
other finfish species such as cod, trout, arctic The Atlantic Canada Fish Farmers
char, sturgeon and halibut as well as mussels and Association (ACFFA) is an industry-fund-
november-December 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 31

4. 2
EXPERT T●PIC
located in areas selected for their isola-
tion, water quality and flow. After being
placed within a seawater farm, a salmon
generally takes 19 - 31 months to grow
to an optimum market size of around
3.5 – 4 kg. There are also a number of
small fresh water farms operating in the
McKenzie Country hydroelectric- canals.
New Zealand producers (New
Zealand King Salmon, Sanford, Akaroa
Salmon, Mt Cook Alpine Salmon,
Benmore Salmon and High Country
Salmon) are focused on nurturing the
salmon throughout their natural growth
cycle to ensure fish welfare and guaran-
New tee high quality and safe salmon for the
consumer.
International feed production com-
Zealand panies Skretting, Ridley, Biomar and
Reliance supply the majority of New
Zealand’s salmon feed. The food is
specially blended for King Salmon with
by Adam Hicks, Aquaculture New
fishmeal and fish oil, with some produc-
Zealand, New Zealand
ers also incorporating plant proteins and
S
oils and by-products from the poultry
ince its beginnings in the and meat industries, from animals raised
1970s, New Zealand’s for human consumption.
salmon farming industry has The New Zealand salmon farming
evolved from a group of industry now produces more fish pro-
innovative pioneers, to a profes- tein than it consumes – with some pro-
sional, specialised and quality food ducers achieving conversion rates better
production sector focused on envi- than 1:1.19. Information supplied by
ronmental sustainability, food safety feed producers show the wild fish pro-
and value added marketing. tein used in feed production is sourced
primarily from the well-managed and
We are the world’s largest pro- sustainable Peruvian anchovy fishery
ducer of the premium Chinook (King) (www.fishsource.org).
Salmon, with our 2011 harvest of Core to the industry, is an uncom-
14,000 tonnes accounting for roughly promising commitment to the respon-
84 percent of total global production. sible management of our resources.
Last year the New Zealand salmon Our Environmental Codes of Practise
industry generated $128 million in are independently recognised as world
revenue and provided employment leading, and our farming operations are
for hundreds of Kiwis. highly regulated and closely monitored
Roughly half of all salmon farmed to meet the strict environmental condi-
in New Zealand, is consumed in New tions of the New Zealand Resource
Zealand. It is readily available at local Management Act.
supermarkets and restaurants – much Salmon farming is an industry that
of it served in family kitchens and New Zealand can be proud of and at
backyard barbecues. The remainder is the same time be excited about for
exported to over 30 countries includ- our future.
ing Japan, US, Australia, Hong Kong
and Canada.
The premium species of salmon,
King Salmon is prized for its char-
acteristic rich flavour, delicate soft
texture and high Omega-3 content. More InforMatIon:
King Salmon is much harder to grow Website: www.salmon.org.nz or www.
than Atlantic salmon, but yields a aquaculture.org.nz
much higher quality product. The history of New Zealand salmon
farming history has been captured in
Our farmed King Salmon are
Swimming Upstream, and is available by
grown in the pristine, colder waters off emailing contact@kingsalmon.co.nz
the South Island with the majority in
sea pens in Marlborough, Canterbury
and Southland regions. The farms are
32 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | november-December 2012

5. 3
EXPERT T●PIC
people, of which 2,000 are IHN outbreak, the association developed a
employed directly by farming viral management plan designed to respond
companies. The domestic to future incidents of disease more effectively.
demand for BC salmon This plan was implemented in May 2012,
is strong but the fish also when IHN was detected at a farm in north of
exported to the USA and Tofino. There were culls at three farms and
some specialty markets in weekly farm tours were postponed but the
Japan, Asia and India. spread of the disease was halted.
There is a strong environmental move-
The BC Salmon Farmers ment in BC. The association is committed to
Association works in various ways providing good information and engaging with
to look after the needs of its members. questions from the public. It has also worked
For example, regulatory responsibility for with the WWF on its Salmon Aquaculture
the industry has recently been transferred Dialogue.
British from the provincial to the federal govern-
ment. However, there is no specific aqua-
culture legislation in Canadian law. This
More InforMatIon
Website: www.salmonfarmers.org
Columbia, means farmers have to work within existing,
older acts which are not always relevant
to the industry. The association is working
Canada with the Canadian Aquaculture Industry
Alliance to advocate for national
regulation for aquaculture.
Bringing the industry
by Mary Ellen Walling, Executive Director,
together to effec-
BC Salmon Farmers Association, Canada
tively manage
S
fish health is
almon farming is the largest agricul- also a prior-
tural business in British Columbia. ity for the
It produces around 80,000 metric association.
tonnes annually with a value of US Following
$450 million. The industry employs 6,000 the 2002-03
B I O S U S TA I N W O R L D C LA S S F I S H F E E D
A sustainable approach to aquaculture
The BioSustain programme targets the need for a sustainable approach in
food production, by evaluating and documenting the sustainability profile
of different feed types.
For further information please visit www.biosustain.no
www.biomar.com
november-December 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 33

6. 4
EXPERT T●PIC
needed to give a suite of approaches ised by specific activity, which is not a heritable
to disease control to farm managers. trait but reflects the immune experience of
This article will focus on one such each individual. The response of the adaptive
approach, involving the optimisation immune system is relatively slow initially but
of the mineral component of the is long lasting and has a memory component,
diet. Knowledge of the impact of giving faster and larger responses on a second
mineral nutrition on immunological encounter. The main effector cells are a differ-
function and health status of fish, ent white blood cell type called lymphocytes.
together with our greater understand- During infection, the fast but generally short-
ing of the salmonid genome and a new lived innate immune response precedes the
suite of molecular tools, may offer a new longer lasting more specific adaptive immune
perspective enabling better prophylactic con- response. In fish this lag period can be as much
trol of stress and disease. as 10-12 weeks, which has to be kept in mind
when considering prophylactic immunological
Fish immunology control of fish disease (Magnadottir, 2010).
Immunonutrition The immune system protects an organism
in fish farming: against disease and participates in the main- Immunonutrition
tenance of stable conditions during develop- Traditionally the use of antimicrobials
ment and growth, inflammatory reactions and and vaccination has been used to fight
A natural and tissue injury. As in the human immune system,
the fish immune system is divided into innate
disease in fish farms. Today,
farmed Atlantic salmon
sustainable and adaptive components.
The innate system is an ‘ancient’ system
are routinely
vaccinated
solution that is based on a non-specific recognition
of a pathogen, that gives an instant reaction
but has a short duration. The innate immune
against
a
system is of prime importance in the immune
by D. Pacitti, S. A. M. Martin, C.J.
defence of fish and is commonly divided into
Secombes , Scottish Fish Immunology
three compartments: the epithelial/mucosal
Research Centre, Institute of Biological
and Environmental Sciences, University of barrier, secreted soluble mediators (e.g.
Aberdeen, United Kingdom complement system, interferons, anti-
T
microbial peptides) and the cellular
he rise of aquaculture has been components (e.g. phagocytic cells
one of the most profound develop- such as macrophages and granu-
ments in global food production locytes).
over the past 100 years, with pro- The epithelial and
duction approximately doubling each decade. mucosal barrier of the
Aquaculture now delivers 39 percent of skin, gills and alimentary
aquatic food products with the FAO record- tract is an extremely
ing 310 species under culture in 2010. important bar-
rier in fish, being
Among these, salmonid fish (primarily constantly
rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon) are the immersed in
most intensively farmed fish in more than 30
countries representing 90 percent of global
marine aquaculture production. Salmonid
production, particularly Atlantic salmon, number
increased from 299,000 tonnes in 1990 to of bacte-
1.9 million tonnes in 2010, at an average rial and viral diseases
annual rate exceeding 10 percent. Salmon before seawater transfer.
is one of the food categories that is growing However, fish vaccinology is still a
at a significantly higher rate than the world’s young and maturing science, and vac-
human population (FAO, 2012). cines for many pathogens have not yet been
However, the salmon farming industry is media con- developed.
vulnerable to the adverse impacts of disease. taining poten- It is a well-accepted concept that appro-
For example, in 2007 an outbreak of infec- tially harmful priate feed and feeding regimes support
tious salmon anaemia (ISA) in Chile caused agents. The optimum health. However the sustainability
more than $2 billion in losses and reduced by humoral and cel- of fishmeal and fish oil stocks has brought
half the Chilean production of Atlantic salmon lular defences repre- about changes in aquafeed formulations that
(Godoy et al,, 2008). The common causative sent the first response are demanding a greater understanding of the
agents of infectious diseases in aquaculture of the organism once sub- role that alternative ingredients, feed addi-
include a range of bacteria, viruses, parasites ject to pathogen attack. However, a second tives, macro- and micro-nutrients and their
and oomycetes. encounter with the same pathogen will not balance plays as they can directly or indirectly
Whilst vaccines exist for some of these dis- result in an enhanced response. influence fish health and immune function
eases, it is clear that additional measures are In contrast, the adaptive arm is character- (Figure 1).
34 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | november-December 2012

7. EXPERT T●PIC
In terms of macronutrients, the protein metabolism. However in certain circumstanc- can be given during aquaculture operations
(and amino acids), carbohydrate and lipid/ es, when the fish is exposed to certain kinds that are stressful and potentially immunosup-
fatty acid components can all impact on of stress, the required amount may be two to pressive. They are essential for a variety of
health status. Dietary proteins provide essen- three times higher. biological and physiological functions including
tial and non-essential amino acids, which have Vitamin A has essential roles in vision, increased disease resistance and wound heal-
a central role in defence mechanisms, as they growth, bone development, reproduction and ing. A study conducted in rainbow trout fed
are required for the synthesis of an array of normal maintenance of epithelial tissue. Some diets supplemented with vitamin C, showed
proteins involved in immune functions. The important functions of vitamin A include regula- that this molecule increased complement
use of alternative plant proteins has still to be tion of cellular differentiation and proliferation, activity and lymphocyte proliferation. Other
optimised for growth and immune function. studies have revealed that ascorbic acid sup-
Lipids provide energy plementation is able to alleviate the adverse
and meet the effects due to hypoxic conditions and tem-
perature fluctuations (Oliva-Teles, 2012).
Carotenoids
Carotenoids (tetraterpenoid organic pig-
ments) are naturally occurring in plants and
some other photosynthetic organisms (some
types of bacteria and fungi). They protect cells
against oxidative injury and ensure optimal
cellular functions, including apoptosis, cell sig-
nalling and gene regulation. The immunopro-
tective functions of the carotenoids depend
resist- very much on the equilibrium between the
ance to intra- and extracellular milieu and on the type
infection as and concentration of the carotenoid.
well as embry- Despite the role of carotenoids have in the
onic development and nutrition of several fish and crustacean species,
growth. only few studies have considered them in rela-
Vitamin C (or ascorbic acid) tion to the health of the organism. In rainbow
is a co-factor for several enzymatic trout, activities of lysozyme, complement,
reactions,
including col-
lagen synthesis
and the produc-
Healthy
essen- tion of stress
tial fatty acid hormones by
requirements of the interrenal and
animal. It is known that chromaffin cells.
Fish
several polyunsaturated or Vitamin C itself
monounsaturated fatty acids are is also a reduc-
involved in different immune functions, tive compound
exerting their influence through changes in that acts as an
membrane fluidity, eicosanoid synthesis, for- antioxidant dur-
mation of lipid peroxides, regulation of gene ing oxidative
expression, apoptosis, alteration of antigen stress. With the most convincing health feed
products in the market EWOS offers:
presentation, or modulation of intestinal Vitamin E
- Solid documentation
microbiota. All of these processes and path- compounds are - Proven performance in the water
ways have significant roles in inflammation and the major chain- - Compelling cost/benefit analysis
disease resistance. breaking antioxi-
The micronutrients also represent a funda- dant; they have
mental component of fish diets. Micronutrients an important
comprise of vitamins (e.g. A, C and E), role in maintain-
carotenoids (e.g. β-carotene, α-carotene and ing the home-
γ-carotene) and minerals (e.g. calcium, mag- ostasis of labile
nesium, iron, copper, zinc and selenium). Since metabolites
many micronutrients are involved in several (such as vitamins
biological pathways, an inadequate intake can and unsaturated
lead to adverse effects on fish health due to fatty acids) and
deficiency. in protecting the
cell membranes
Vitamins from oxidative Contact your local EWOS representative
Vitamins are organic compounds required damage. for details. Visit ewos.com
in small amounts in the diet, because they Vitamin sup-
play major roles in growth, physiology, and plemented diets
november-December 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 35

8. EXPERT T●PIC
phagocytes and non-specific cytotoxicity can immunity. Among the wide range of minerals both in mammalian and fish models, have
be elevated upon β-carotene and astaxanthin essential for organism welfare, zinc and selenium shown that Se augmentation is able to alleviate
supplementation. These effects can be further have received particular attention. They are a inflammatory reactions, boost the phagocytic
enhanced when using diets enriched for vita- required component for more than 300 differ- and killing capacity of the cell mediated immune
mins A, C and E. In a subsequent investigation, ent enzymes, which makes them fundamental response, and increase the expression of cellular
the same researchers validated the benefits for the proper functioning of many metabolic components responsible for efficient antiviral-
of carotenoids derived from marine algae, processes in the organism, including the immune defences.
which improved humoral as well as cellular response (Ferenčík and Ebringer, 2003). Typically the dose range between levels
responses (Kiron, 2012). Zinc is essential due to its vital structural and/ giving deficiency and those giving toxicity for
or catalytic importance in several proteins that different minerals is quite narrow, and does
Minerals play important roles in fish growth, reproduc- not leave a big margin for their supplementa-
Minerals are another important component tion, development, vision and immune function. tion. Apart from concentration level, another
in the fish diet. In many cases their importance Consequently for fish, of the essential metals, important aspect is the bioavailability of these
is under-estimated and as a consequence their zinc is second in quantitative importance only micronutrients in the diet.
amount in fish diets can be below the required level. to iron. Dietary zinc minimum requirements Factors influencing bioavailability include the
Moreover, several studies have shown that certain range between 15–60 mg kg–1 dry mass of diet level and form of the nutrient, particle size and
minerals, when provided to fish at doses marginally (it varies slightly amongst different fish species), digestibility of the diet, nutrient interactions which
above essential levels can effectively boost immune with the maximum level that is permitted in fish may be either synergistic or antagonistic, stress and
responses and increase stress resistance. diets by the European Union being 250 mg kg-1. pathological conditions of the fish, waterborne
However, it is important not to exceed Previous studies have shown a toxic effect in mineral concentration and the species under con-
the tolerated level with mineral augmenta- rainbow trout fed zinc at concentrations ranging sideration. Of these factors, those related to the
tion, because toxic effects may occur (Figure between 500-1000 mg kg–1. It may exert its toxicity chemical state are particularly important. If the
2). In higher vertebrates minerals are known by interfering with intracellular calcium homeostasis, mineral is present in the diet in insoluble and
to impact general organism homeostasis and and affecting hepatic copper and haemoglobin levels. indigestible form, uptake can be affected.
In contrast, zinc supports a Moreover, the element can form insoluble and
healthy immune system and is non-absorbable substances in the gastrointestinal
needed for wound healing. Indeed, tract of the animal that may either prevent or reduce
zinc deficiency has been shown its uptake, transport and metabolism. Commonly,
to compromise antibody produc- minerals can be provided to the fish either as inor-
tion, leading to reduced titres post- ganic salts or as chelated or organic forms.
immunisation. Adequate zinc status In recent years, there has been considerable
is essential for proliferation, matu- interest in the use of organic trace minerals rather
ration and differentiation of cells than salts, on the grounds that they are more bio-
of the adaptive immune response. available or more similar, than inorganic sources,
Studies conducted on dietary zinc to forms that occur in the organism. If the metal
supplementation have shown an chelate or complex is stable in the digestive tract,
increased level of circulating lym- the metal would be protected from forming
phocytes in the blood and chemo- complexes with other dietary components that
Figure 1: The concept of immunonutrition
in health maintenance (modified from taxis of macrophages, leading to an can inhibit absorption, allowing greater assimilation.
Kiron, 2012) overall improved disease resistance. Moreover, the ingestion of metals in the inor-
Selenium (Se) is another important ganic form might facilitate the formation of reactive
trace element for fish because it is a ions which can promote oxidative stress in the
constituent of more than 30 seleno- gastro-intestinal tract. The use of organic chelated
proteins with fundamental structural minerals is regarded as a more natural method of
and enzymatic roles in the cell. Se trace element supplementation and may give a
is primarily involved in antioxidant larger safe range for supplementation (Watanabe
defences, reproduction, synthesis of et al., 1997).
thyroid hormones and the immune In the case of zinc and selenium, two prod-
response. The Se requirement is esti- ucts called Bio-Plex® and Sel-Plex® have been
mated to be 0.15-0.38 mg kg–1 (it produced by Alltech, to provide respectively zinc
also slightly varies amongst different and selenium augmentation into the animal diet.
fish species), with the maximum level Both contain a relatively higher amount of these
in fish diets permitted by the European two metals complexed into organic compounds
Union being 0.5 mg kg-1. derived from yeast. Numerous studies have already
Selenium toxicity occurs in rain- been conducted in different models (mice, poultry,
bow trout when the dietary intake pigs and fish) showing the benefits of mineral-yeast
Figure 2: Schematic representation of the
relationship between element intake, tissue exceeds 13 mg kg-1. Se-deficient diets enriched diets on animal welfare. The mineral-
element concentration and health indices. can profoundly affect the antioxi- enriched diets can provide a relatively inexpensive,
The curve represents an essential trace dant defences, metabolism and the sustainable and consumer friendly approach to
element which may produce adverse health immune response in fish. In Se defi- improve fish production, with a negligible impact
effects in conditions of deficiency or excessive
ciency, cell/tissue integrity can more on the environment.
exposure. Intake A & B represent intakes
which produce minimal statistical significant easily be compromised by oxidative Moreover, a better tolerance of higher con-
changes from normal value of one or more stress and inflammatory disorders centrations of these two metals as yeast-derived
health indices due to deficiency or toxicity can occur. ingredients in animal feed has been found. This
respectively (Modified from Spivey et al, 1982) Different studies, conducted combined with an increased activity of cellular
36 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | november-December 2012

9. EXPERT T●PIC
components involved in stress resistance and
Managing AGD (Amoebic
5
immune responses in animals fed such diets,
leads to the conclusion that farmed animal feeds Gill Disease) in Atlantic
enriched with organic metal compounds are safe at
higher Se/ Zn doses. However, more investigations
salmon:
are needed to better elucidate to what extent Still a long way to go
these compounds can improve the fish immune
response and resistance to stressors. by SmartAqua, Australia
Conclusions
A
It is important to ensure that diet composition moebic gill disease (AGD) order for us to develop more effective
meets the fish required level of essential nutrients. first emerged as a problem control strategies for AGD, we need to
This has been done to a large extent with growth in the 1980s in Tasmania; it improve our knowledge of the organism
in mind but it is also a possible strategy that could is now a disease of inter- itself and the epidemiology of the disease.
effectively increase fish health status. Micronutrient national significance. AGD has now As examples – where does the amoeba
augmentation in particular may represent a sus- been identified on the west coast of live when a site is fallowed? Does it have
tainable and environmental/consumer friendly USA, Chile, New Zealand, Japan, South a reservoir in wild populations of fish?
approach to improve fish responses to many kinds Africa, Ireland, Scotland, France, Spain Can it live independent of a host, for
of stress (farm operations and disease outbreaks). and Norway. how long? What depths does it prefer?
The concentration and the form in which these Is it phototactic? What environmental
micronutrients are delivered to fish must be taken Current methodologies of controlling conditions favour amoeba proliferation?
into account and be optimised. New ingredients this disease involve bathing the fish in Does AGD have a link with biofouling or
and additives are emerging on the market, and give either freshwater for an extended period harmful algae? Under normal culture situ-
an opportunity to produce new formulations to of time; or in hydrogen peroxide for a ations, Chinook salmon are immune to
ensure a higher assimilation of these components short period of time. AGD, why? Will ingredient substitution
and reduce the potential for adverse affects of Despite the fact that AGD has been in the feed have any influence on AGD?
micronutrient augmentation. around for several decades, there are Despite the disease being around for
still significant gaps in our knowledge almost 30 years, we have still a long way
References about this disease. The causative agent to go before we have total understanding
was only identified relatively recently. In of the disease we are trying to defeat.
Available on request
november-December 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 37

10. This digital re-print is part of the November | December 2012 edition of International
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online magazine on our website, and as an archive of individual features on
the docstoc website.
Please click here to view our other publications on www.docstoc.com.
VO L U M E 1 5 I S S U E 6 2 0 1 2
• See the full issue
An overview
of the UK fish vaccination industry • Visit the International Aquafeed website
Why check selenomethionine
levels in selenium yeast?
Extrusion technology for the
production of micro-aquatic feeds
• Contact the International Aquafeed Team
and shrimp feeds
EXPERT TOPIC
– Salmon
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