2. MACHINE ARCHITECTURE
In its simplest form, a computer consists of five basic functional
units: – the control unit, the arithmetic and logic unit,
memory unit, the input unit and the output unit.
INPUT CONTROL
UNIT MEMORY UNIT
UNIT
OUTPUT ARITHMETIC
UNIT & LOGIC UNIT
I/O
PROCESSOR
3. BASIC FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF COMPUTER
Input Unit: is the means by which computers can accept coded
information.
Memory Unit: its function is to store programs and data that are currently
in use.
Semiconductor storage cells are used for primary storage.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Execution of most operations within a
computer takes place in the ALU.
e.g. the addition of two numbers currently in main memory
Output Unit: Its function is to return processed results to the outside
world.
Control Unit: Its function is to co-ordinate the operations of the other
units in an organized way.
4. OPERATION OF A COMPUTER
The operation of a computer can be briefly described as follows:
It accepts information (programs and data) through an input
unit and transfers it to main memory
Information stored in memory is fetched under program control
into an ALU to be processed
Processed information leaves the computer through an output
unit
The control unit directs all activities inside the machine. The
system clock generates a continuous sequence of clock pulses
to step the control unit through its operation.
5. OVERALL BLOCK STRUCTURE OF A COMPUTER
Control System
External Unit Internal clock
Address/ Address/data
Data Bus buses
Arithmetic &
Logic Unit
Memory
Unit
Input/Output Input port
Unit Output port
The functional units are connected by BUSES and control links. The latter are not
shown on the above diagram.
6. WHAT IS A BUS
A bus is a pathway along which data, addresses and control signals pass
within the computer.
Physically a bus is a parallel group of wires, usually 16, 32, 64 … bits wide.
The capacity of a bus is determined by how many bits can travel through the
circuitry at one time. The greater the capacity of a bus, the more powerful and
faster the operation.
The speed of the bus is another factor that influences the processing power of
a computer
To represent a bus we usually use the large arrow as shown in the diagram
below.
(i) (ii)
Bus 16 bits wide
7. TYPES OF BUSES
A data bus is used in order to transfer data from one functional unit to the other (say
between the CPU and memory) inside the computer.
The data bus is two way.
The width of the data bus determines how many bits can be transferred simultaneously. It is
usually (but not always) the same as the word size.
o The word size of a computer is the number of bits that the CPU can process
simultaneously. Word size may be 8, 16,32, 64, and processed as a single unit during
input and output, arithmetic and logic instructions. Word size is an important factor in
determining the speed of a processor.
An address bus is used to transfer addresses from the control unit to other parts of
the computer (say from CPU to main memory).
The address bus is one way only.
The width of the address bus determines the maximum address that can be directly
referenced.
Example: Given an 8-bit address bus, you can directly address 256 locations
0000 0000 – 1111 1111 (0-255)
The control bus carries control signals to different parts of the computer such as
‗read‘, ‗write‘ (say from CPU to main memory).
System bus is a general term for the bus system connecting the CPU to main
memory.
8. BANDWIDTH AND BUS SYSTEMS
The bandwidth of the bus, measured in bits/sec, signifies the
number of bits that can be transmitted along the bus.
There are several ways in which this physical limitation and
others of a bus system may be overcome in order to improve
system performance:
Increase the bus system bandwidth
The use of caching technique
Multiple buses. Apart from the added buses this would require extra
hardware so that a processor may switch from one bus to another
according to which bus is not in use at the time.
9. THE SYSTEM CLOCK
The System clock also called Control Pulse Generator.
Processors have an internal clock which generates regularly timed pulses in
order to synchronize the various operations being carried out inside the
computer.
Clock pulses
Clock
pulse
The clock is an electronic system which produces a train of binary pulses
which represent the pattern 01010101 . Each clock pulse represents one
cycle of the square wave as shown above.
10. CLOCK SPEED
All processor activities, such as fetching an instruction, reading a data item
from main memory into the CPU, etc., must begin on a clock pulse. Some
activities may take more than one clock pulse to complete.
The speed (frequency) of the clock is measured in Hz (hertz), i.e. cycles per
second.
Say, given an 800MHz Pentium processor,
800MHz = 800 * 106 Hz
= 800 000 000 cycles per second
i.e. the processor is being told to do different things at a rate of 800 million times per
second
Hence, the clock speed is one of the factors that influence the
processing power of a computer.
11. MAIN MEMORY ORGANISATION
Main memory is used to store data.
Data may represent instructions, ASCII character codes, numeric codes …
a host of different data codes.
A single storage location is called a register.
REGISTER
n bits
Storage consists of an array of such registers.
Say, a 1 Mb memory bank with 8-bit registers:
1Mb = 1024*1024 bytes (220)
= 1048576 bytes hence 1048576 memory registers of 1 byte each.
Furthermore, a 20-bit address is required to address all registers directly.
12. MEMORY MAP
Physically the storage used inside computer
unit is of the semiconductor type. Different
types of memory chips exist and are in use. Addresses (Hex)
The main memory of a computer consists of Operating FFF001 FFFFF
a mixture of semiconductor types. Different
parts of main memory are used for specific system
purposes. How the memory of the computer
is utilized, is called the MEMORY MAP and is User 0F4241 FFF000
usually dictated by the operating system. programs
Below is a simplistic example of a memory
map.
Operating 010000 – 0F4240
In order to be able to store and retrieve System
information in memory locations, each
location is identified by means of an
identification number called ADDRESS. BIOS 000000 – 00FFFF
Knowing the address, a memory location may
be accessed immediately – hence random
access (memory). We usually denote
memory addresses in hex.
13. MEMORY CYCLE
In order to read an item from store to the CPU, the address of the item is
sent across to main memory via the address bus and the read signal is sent
via the control bus so that the required item is retrieved into the CPU via
the data bus.
Similarly, in order to write an item to store, the address where to store the
data item is sent across the address bus, the item to be stored is sent via
the data bus, while the write signal is sent via the control bus.
One sequence for reading/writing is called a MEMORY CYCLE. The
complexity of an operation often depends on the number of memory cycles
involved.
The duration of a memory cycle is a determining factor of the
overall speed of a computer.
14. INPUT/OUTPUT ORGANIZATION
Below is a more elaborated block diagram of the computer.
Most microcomputers use a single bus arrangement as shown below.
Data bus
RAM ROM VDU & HardDisk Printer Digital A/D
CPU keyboard CD ROM Plotter I/O D/A Process
Scanner control
System
clock
Address bus
Control bus is not shown →—
15. HANDLING INPUT-OUTPUT
The processor, memory and I/O devices are connected to the bus, which
consists of three sets of lines used to carry address, data and control
signals.
Each I/O device is assigned a unique address. When the processor places a
particular address on the address lines, the device that recognizes its
address responds to the commands issued on the control lines.
When I/O devices and the memory share the same address space, the
arrangement is called MEMORY-MAPPED I/O.
An alternative way of handling input-output is to have special instructions to
perform I/O transfers and separate address space for I/O devices –
ISOLATED I/O.
16. I/O INTERFACE
The diagram below illustrates the I/O interface for an input device.
Address lines
Bus
Data lines
Control lines
Address Control Data & status I/O
decoder circuits registers Interface
Input device
In order to input data, the address decoder identifies its own address on the
address bus and the read signal on the control line; the input device sends
data to the data register and sets the status register to signal that the input is
complete. The data is then copied from the input data register into the
computer.
A similar procedure is used to output data to an output device.
17. THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (PROCESSOR)
Traditionally, in microcomputers the CPU or processor is contained on a
single integrated circuit, and is known as a microprocessor. In larger
computer systems, the term CPU is often referred to as the main processing
unit and houses a number of processors.
Nowadays, the processor of a personal computer may consist of a number
of execution units or ‗cores‘ – dual core technology. More execution cores
implies more processing power but it does not necessarily mean more
speed.
The control unit and arithmetic unit together, form the central processing
unit (CPU).
Popularly, the clock speed of the chip is quoted as CPU speed
measurement; but the count of instructions processed per second (MIPS,
BIPS, TIPS for Millions, Billions or Trillions of Instructions processed per
Second) gives a better indication of CPU speed.
The Arithmetic and logic unit is that part of the CPU where the actual
manipulation of the data takes place.
The task of the Control Unit is to direct the step-by-step workings of the
processor as it carries out each instruction of a program
18. TASK OF CONTROL UNIT
As already stated, the task of the Control Unit is to direct the
step-by-step workings of the processor as it carries out each
instruction of a program i.e.
to control the sequence in which the instructions are executed
to control access to the main store of the computer
to regulate the timing of all operations carried out within the processor
to send control signals to, and receive control signals from peripheral
devices
The CPU contains circuitry and registers to enable it to carry
out its tasks.
19. CPU REGISTERS (1)
The block diagram below represents the CPU with some of the registers
involved. Note that some of the registers have a special purpose while others
are general purpose storage registers.
Arithmetic and Instruction R0
Logic Unit Register (CIR) R1
R2
Accumulator Status Register R3
R4
R5
Program Counter
(PC)
Control Unit Memory address Memory Data
Register (MAR) Register (MDR)
External bus
Memory
20. CPU REGISTERS (2)
The program counter (PC) or Sequence Control register contains the
address of the next program instruction to be fetched.
It determines the sequence in which the program instructions are to be
executed.
After an instruction is fetched from main store, the content of the program
counter is increased ready for the next instruction. Depending on the length of
the current instruction, 1 or 2 or is added to the program counter in order to
reset it.
If an instruction transfers control to another part of the program, the address to
which control is transferred, is loaded into the program counter.
The Current Instruction Register (CIR) stores a copy of the current
program instruction. The register is connected to a decoder that connects
the control switches at various points throughout the processor according to
the instruction in the instruction register.
21. CPU REGISTERS (3)
The Memory Address Register (MAR) holds the address of
the memory location currently being accessed (i.e. from which
data is being read or data is being written.
The Memory Data Register (MDR) or Memory Buffer
Register (MBR) is used to temporarily store data read or
written to main memory.
(Note that, at any moment it time, it holds the data that was
read from or written to main memory the last time that this
read/write operation was carried out.)
22. CPU REGISTERS (4)
The Status Register (SR) contains bits that are set or cleared based on
the result of an instruction. Different bits within this register represent
different flags or status bits (sometimes also known as condition codes)
such as:
Zero (Z) is set to 1 if the output from the current operation is 0
Negative (N) is set to 1 if the output from the current instruction is negative.
Carry (C) is set to 1 if there is a carry to the MSB during addition or shift
Overflow (O) is set to 1 if there is an overflow when an arithmetic operation is
carried out
The values of these flags are used to control the program.
The Accumulator is the principal ‗working area‘ of the computer. It stores
the data item currently being processed.
23. CPU REGISTERS (5)
The general-purpose registers are used for performing arithmetic functions.
In some computers there is only one general-purpose register i.e. the accumulator.
Other computers have a number of general-purpose registers.
In some processors the program counter, instruction register, are not dedicated registers
but general purpose registers in the CPU and each may be used as PC, CIR,
Other special purpose registers found within the CPU:
The Stack Pointer (SP) stores the current address of the top of (system) stack.
Some uses of stack are:
When execution of a program is interrupted, the status of the current program and the
current contents of all the registers are saved on the stack and the stack pointer updated.
Stores intermediate results of arithmetic operations.
Holds return address (contents of program counter) and parameter information when
subroutines are called.
Index Register is used to implement a particular mode of memory addressing called
indexed addressing. The index register holds the base address of an array of
locations. In order to access a specific location of the array the offset is added to the
base address. This is ideal for handling array structures.
24. ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC CIRCUITS (1)
The ALU holds a number of arithmetic and logic circuits. These circuits
carry out various operations on one or two data items.
ADD a pair of data items / increment by one a single data item
A NOT A
NOT operates on a single operand 0 1
Hence, NOT(1010 0110) 0101 1001 1 0
AND operates on two operands A B A AND B
Hence, 0 0 0
AND (1010 0110, 1111 0000) 1010 0000
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
25. ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC CIRCUITS (2)
A B A OR B
OR operates on two operands 0 0 0
Hence, OR(1010 0110, 1111 0000) 1111 0110
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
XOR (Exclusive OR) operates on two operands A B A XOR B
Hence, XOR(1010 0110, 1111 0000) 0101 0110 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
26. ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC CIRCUITS (3)
LOGICAL SHIFT operates on a single operand
Logical SHIFT LEFT moves the individual bits of the operand one place to the left.
The leftmost bit is lost and ‗0‘ is added as the rightmost bit
Hence, Logical Shift Left(1010 0110) 0100 1100
Similarly Logical Shift Right(1010 0110) 0101 0011
ARITHMETIC SHIFT operates on a single operand
Arithmetic SHIFT LEFT moves the individual bits of the operand one place to the
left. The leftmost bit is lost and ‗0‘ is added as the second rightmost bit. Note that
in arithmetic shifts the sign bit(MSB) must be preserved.
Hence, Arithmetic Shift Left(1010 0110) 1100 1100
lost /
Similarly Logical Shift Right(1010 0110) 1001 0011
lost
If the shift operations are through the carry bit then the ‗lost bit‘ is copied
into the carry bit.
27. THE FETCH-EXECUTE CYCLE (1)
The Fetch-Execute cycle is also known as the Instruction Cycle.
The sequence of operations involved in executing an instruction can be
subdivided into two phases – the fetch cycle and the execution cycle.
The fetch-execute cycle involves the following steps:
• (Fetch phase)
The address of the next instruction is copied from the PC to the MAR
The instruction held at the address is copied to the MDR. At the same time the
content of the PC is incremented so that it holds the address of the next
instruction.
The contents of the MDR are copied to the CIR
• (Execute phase)
The instruction held in the CIR is decoded
The instruction is executed
28. THE FETCH-EXECUTE CYCLE (2)
START
Any instructions to
N
execute?
Y
Fetch next instruction
Decode instruction
Execute instruction
N
Any interrupts to be
processed?
Y
Transfer control to interrupt
handling program
29. OTHER PROCESSOR FUNCTIONS
In addition to fetching and executing program sequence
instructions, the CPU has to supervise other operations such as
data transfers between input/output devices and main memory.
When an I/O device needs to transfer data, it generates an
interrupt and the CPU suspends execution of the program and
transfers control to an appropriate interrupt handling program.
A test for the presence of interrupts is carried out at the end of
each instruction cycle.
30. INTERRUPTS
An interrupt is a signal from some device or source that causes
the running program to be suspended.
The interrupt signal is sent along one or more interrupt lines
(part of the control bus) to the processor.
Common causes of interrupt:
input and output of data e.g. to signal to the processor that input
required is complete
timed interrupts e.g.: in a time-sharing system, user process is
interrupted its time-slice.
Error detection in a program e.g. division by zero, type mismatch.
Malfunctioning of hardware e.g. memory violation error
31. INTERRUPT HANDLING
When an interrupt occurs:
The instruction cycle is completed
The current contents of all the processor registers are saved
The source of interrupt is identified
Interrupts of lower priority are disabled
Initiation and execution of relevant interrupt servicing routine
Interrupts are enabled
The interrupted program is resumed from the point at which it
was interrupted.
32. DETERMINATION OF SOURCE OF INTERRUPT (1)
Determination of the source of interrupt may be implemented in
various ways:
Directly by hardware
i.e. n interrupt lines required to identify 2n different sources of
interrupt
Software identification method by polling
A skip chain as follows polls each different source
Service routine for
Source 1?
source 1
Source 2? Service routine for
source 2
33. DETERMINATION OF SOURCE OF INTERRUPT (2)
Most often a combination of hardware and software is used in
order to identify different sources of interrupt.
In the CPU there is an interrupt register. Each bit of this
register represents a different type of interrupt. When an
interrupt occurs one of the bits is set to 1. The processor
regularly checks (after each instruction cycle) the interrupt
register to see if any interrupts have occurred. If a bit is set,
the interrupt is identified and serviced.
34. PRIORITY OF INTERRUPTS
Some interrupts such as hardware failure must be dealt with
immediately while others may be temporarily ignored.
Interrupts are assigned priorities so that when two interrupts
are received simultaneously, the one with higher priority is
dealt with first.
Only an interrupt of higher priority may interrupt the servicing
of another interrupt.
35. SOME FEATURES TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE
Some machine architectural features which are intended to improve
the performance of the computer are:
Pipelining – single-pipeline architecture…multi-pipeline architecture
Multi-processor architecture
Bus systems and bandwidth (refer to earlier slides)
Cache Memory (refer to OS course module)
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
36. PIPE-LINING
Pictorial illustration of single pipe-line architecture
If the next instruction in the fetch decode execute
queue is not the required one instruction 1
then the pipe-line is ‗flushed‘
and the process started again instruction 2 instruction 1
with the required instruction.
instruction 3 instruction 2 instruction 1
Multiple pipe-line architecture
signifies a number of pipe- instruction 4 instruction 3 instruction 2
lines working in parallel. If IN OUT
the instructions being carried wrong instruction – flush pipeline!
out in parallel are not
connected in any way, this instruction 17
will result in a much faster
execution rate. instruction 18 instruction 17
instruction 19 instruction 18 instruction 17
37. MULTI-PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
Multiple-processor architectures employ a number of
processors to work together ‗as a team‘.
Different processors may be housed inside the same chip, say
dual-core (quad core …) technology.
There exists a whole spectrum of multi-processor architectures
ranging from very tightly coupled systems sharing the same
buses and memory, to massive parallel architectures where
each processor uses multiple communication lines to connect to
other processors in the system.
CPU 1 CPU 2 CPU 3 CPU 4
Main memory
38. DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS
The Direct Memory Access (DMA) technique is used for servicing high-speed
peripherals such as the hard-disk, hence avoiding continuous intervention by
the processor.
DMA transfers are performed by a control circuit – the DMA controller,
associated with the I/O device.
For each word transferred, the DMA controller performs the functions normally
performed by the processor when accessing memory,
DMA
i.e. for each word transferred it Controller
must provide the memory
Disk
address and all the bus signals
which control the transfer. Bus
CPU Main memory
39. DMA CONTROLLER
<starting address> <status and control> IRQ – Interrupt Request flag
IE- Interrupt enable flag
R/W – Read/Write flag
<word count> IRQ done Done – Ready flag
IE R/W
DMA controller
Although the DMA controller can perform data transfer without intervention
from the processor, its operation is under processor control.
To initiate block transfer under DMA control the processor sends the
following data to the controller: the starting memory address, the number
of words in the block and the direction of transfer.
The DMA controller then handles the transfer. Memory accesses by the
processor and the DMA controller are interwoven. Since the processor
originates most memory access cycles, the DMA controller is said to ―steal‖
memory cycles from the processor and hence this interleaving technique is
known as cycle stealing.
When the entire block is transferred the DMA controller informs the
processor by raising an interrupt signal.
40. MACHINE OPERATION
The instructions, which control the step-by-step workings of a
processor, (the Instruction Set) are in a language called
Machine Language.
The machine language instructions are closely related to the
architecture of a computer.
There is one instruction for each operation directly performed
by the hardware of the computer.
Different processors in general have different instruction sets.
41. INSTRUCTION TYPES
In a typical instruction set, you would find the following types of
instructions:
Data transfer instructions
e.g MOV AX, BX; move contents of register BX to register AX
Arithmetic operations
e.g. SUB AX, BX; subtract the contents of BX from the contents of register AX
Logical operations
e.g. AND AX, 0001H; bit-wise AND between register AX and 000116
Test and branch instructions
e.g. JG label1; branch to instruction labelled ‗label1‘ if the (preceding)
comparison result is greater
42. INSTRUCTION FORMATS
A machine instruction consists of a binary bit pattern. The length of the
instruction (binary bit pattern) may vary from one instruction to another.
The way the bits are interpreted by the processor gives the format of the
instruction. Different instruction types within the same set usually have a
different format.
Say, data transfer instructions are to be interpreted as follows:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Op code Mode Operand Address
43. MEMORY ADDRESSING
Some instructions do not specify any memory address i.e. they do not
require anything from main store. Such instructions are said to be ZERO
ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS
e.g. HALT; stop execution
Some instructions specify a single address. These are called ONE
ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS.
e.g. INC AX; increment the contents of register AX by 1
Other instructions specify two addresses. Such instructions usually involve
two operands. These are called TWO ADDRESS INSTRUCTIONS.
e.g. AND AX,0001H; ‗mask‘ the least significant bit of AX
44. ADDRESSING MODES
There are several ways in which one may refer to a memory location. The
different modes in which memory locations may be identified are called
addressing modes.
Register Mode:
The operands specified in the instruction are held in CPU registers
e.g. SUB AX, BX
Immediate Operand Mode.
In this mode, the operand is specified in the instruction itself.
e.g. MOV AX, 25; load the number 25 to the register AX
Direct Addressing Mode (Absolute addressing).
The number in the address part of the instruction is to be interpreted as the
address of the memory location holding the data item.
e.g. MOV AX, C; load the contents of location C to the register AX;
Indirect Addressing Mode.
The address in the instruction locates the address of the required data item.
e.g. MOX AX, [C]; load the data item whose address is in register C to
the register AX
45. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
In assembly language, mnemonics are used for all machine
instructions.
Mnemonics are typically two-, three- or four- lettered words
such as ADD, MOV, INC,.
There is usually a one-to-one mapping between assembly
instructions and machine code instructions.
Hence, in assembly language, we have instruction types:
Data transfer
Arithmetic instructions
Logical instructions
Test and branch instructions
46. DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS
Move data from memory to a register, or from register to
register
Move data from a register to memory or some output unit
Move data from an input unit to a register
E.g: MOV AX,BX; copies contents of register BX to register AX
MOV AX,25; load register AX with the number 25
MOV C,AX; copies contents of AX to memory location C
47. ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS
Some processors offer only addition and subtraction operations.
Others offer a whole range of operations:
ADD -addition SUB - subtraction
MUL - multiplication DIV - division
INC - increment DEC - decrement
ABS – absolute value NEG – change sign
SHL – arithmetic shift left SHR – arithmetic shift right
When arithmetic operations are carried out the status bits (condition codes)
N(negative), Z(zero), O(overflow), C(carry) may be set or reset depending
on the result of the instruction
49. TEST AND BRANCH INSTRUCTIONS
Conditional branching instructions usually transfer control to
some program address relative to the current depending on the
status of some bit in the status register
Examples:
SUB AX, N; compare contents of accumulator with contents of memory
location N
JNE dwn; transfer program control to label ‘dwn‘ if result is not
negative i.e. contents of AX >= contents of N
MOV AX, N; load contents of N to register AX
dwn PUSH AX; push contents of accumulator to stack
50. LABEL vs SYMBOLIC ADDRESS
Remarks re preceding example:
‗dwn‘ in 4th instruction specified, is said to be a label because it
gives a name to that particular program address. A label must
be unique i.e. you may only label one program address with a
given label.
‗dwn‘ in 2nd instruction specified, is said to be a symbolic
address. A symbolic address is a group of characters that
represent the address of an instruction or a data item. Within a
program, symbolic addresses are not unique i.e. you may have
more than one reference to the same label.
51. UNCONDITIONAL BRANCHING INSTRUCTIONS
Unconditional branching instructions transfer control to some
other part of the program unconditionally.
Examples:
JMP 100; causes 100 to be stored in the PC so that the next instruction is
retrieved from that location
RTN; a return instruction from some subroutine; causes the top of stack to
be popped into the PC.
