1. Kevin J. Hartnett

3.  How many officers should be assigned to the
patrol function in order to provide the level of
services needed
 Decisions regarding allocation are influenced
by factors such as the number of calls for
service, officer response time, geographic
area

4.  http://youtu.be/BBMsPNI6EZE

5.  Patrol is the Core Function of the Police
Service
 Traditionally viewed as the task associated
with accomplishing the primary goal of police
organizations: Crime Fighting

6.  The large percentage of Police Officer’s time
is spent on a wide variety of citizen demands
that are only peripherally related to law
enforcement
 Calls for service studies show that less then
half of all requests are crime related

7.  Patrol performs a wide array of tasks that are
not associated with crime control:
 Medical Assistance
 Utility Problems
 Animal Complaints
 Cats in trees, (ever see a cat skeleton in a
tree?)

8.  A majority of patrol’s time is spent “on patrol”
 This creates a “visible presence”
 Somewhat deters crime
 Promotes an impression of safety to citizens
 Decentralizes units in a geographic area so
response time is quicker

10.  “Big City Bias”
 Overgeneralizations: Minneapolis Domestic
Violence Study vs. Omaha Study
 Little Research in the Field on Deployment
 Research done on what does not work, not
what does
 Skolnick and Bayley Study on patrol allocation
is debatable: The New Blue Line: Police
Innovation in Six American Cities

11.  1st ) Increasing Police does not always reduce
crime
 2nd) random patrol neither reduces crime nor
improves chances of catching suspects
 3rd) 2 man cars are no more effective then 1
man
 4th) Saturation patrolling does reduce
crime, temporally by displacing it

12.  5th) The types of crime that terrorize
citizens, mugging, robbery, burglary, rape, h
omicide is rarely encountered by patrol units
 6th) Improving response time has little effect
on the likelihood of arresting criminals
 7th) Crimes are not solved through criminal
investigations
 J. Skolnick and D. Bailey, The New Blue Line:
Police Innovation in Six American Cities (New
York, NY: Free Press, 1986)

13.  Strecher states that “The essence of science is
the verification and advancement of what is
already known with repeated and refined
research. The value of most police research
findings is limited by a lack of both
replication and the refinement of the
research”
 V.G. Strecher, Goal Orientated Policing: Major
Police Studies and Findings. Unpublished
Manuscript (Huntsville, Texas Sam Houston
University 1993)

14.  Assessing the value of rapid response only on
the dynamic of apprehending criminals is
myopic.
 Research on Rapid Response did lead to
CAD, efficiency of patrol, greater citizen
satisfaction

15.  Patrol is the most visible and readily
recognized function of modern police
 60% or more of the sworn personal in many
agencies are assigned to patrol
 Every American community wants 3 things
from their police department: 1) immediate
response to emergencies, 2) Reasonable
Response Times to nonemergency's, 3)
Visibility that provides a feeling of security

16.  These are the essential elements of patrol
allocation, deployment, and scheduling
 Rapid Response is a demand of citizens
 The effectiveness of patrol is still largely
undetermined and under-researched
 Hence, “Patrol is Patrol”

17.  The ability of the police to “solve” crime is
limited, even with a cooperative relationship
with citizens
 Some causes of crime are beyond the police
control: poverty, broken families, substance
abuse, unemployment

18.  The FOCUS of police administrators should be
on allocating and deploying officers to
efficiently and effectively manage and reduce
crime
 Reppetto tells us that “the way officers are
trained, deployed, and managed has a
substantial, if not primary impact on police
productivity , T.A. Reppetto, The Influence of
Police Organizational Style on Crime Control
and Effectiveness, Journal of Police Science and
Administration 3, no.3 (1975): 274-79

19.  Crime prevention is not attainable through
the use of “sit around and wait” patrol
 Emphasis should be on repression and
suppression of crime through innovative and
proactive deployment tactics, J.H.
Auten, Crime Prevention and Police Patrol –
Are They Compatible?, Police Chief 48, no.
8 (1981)

20.  Very few crime prevention
programs, especially patrol programs have
been evaluated using scientifically recognized
standards and methodologies including
repeated tests under similar and differing
social conditions

21.  A meta-analysis reveled that, based on a
review of over 500 crime prevention program
evaluations meeting minimum scientific
standards, there was minimal evidence to
establish what works, what doesn’t, and what
is promising in policing
 L.W. Sherman, et al, Preventing Crime: What
Works, What Doesn’t, What’s Promising
(Washington, D.C.: National Institute of
Justice, 1998)

22.  Saturation Patrols
 Increased Field Interrogations
 Increased Traffic Enforcement
 High Visibility Patrol
 Hot Spots
 Order Maintenance Policing (Broken Window
Theory)

23.  The effectiveness of patrol is still largely
undetermined and under researched when
viewed in relation to the resources allocated
to the patrol division. The police still
patrol, but patrol allocation and deployment
is still based on concepts and theories long
since discarded.
Sherman, Crime and Public Policy,

25. August Vollmer (1876-1955) earned a national
reputation as an innovator and publicist
of new ideas; and often is called the “father
of modern law enforcement.” Vollmer
reorganized the Berkeley Police
Department, created new units within it, and
increased its capacities with motor vehicles
outfitted with one-way radios that could
monitor the police dispatchers.
He hired college-educated officers
when he could and was the first criminal justice
professor

26.  Vollmer developed a list of functions many of
which are still in use today:
 Crime Prevention
 Criminal Apprehension
 Public Service
 Traffic Control
 Emergency Services

27.  Vollmer develop the territorial subunit, aka:
The Beat, a means to allocate police
resources based on workload analysis and
calls for service.
 This early work led to many departments
allocating units based on workload
 Some agencies still allocate resources evenly
to this day

28. Orlando W. Wilson (1900-1972)
Wilson was one of the first college-
educated police officers
(a street cop, not a college-
educated police executive).
Later, as a police manager and as
an academic, he applied the basic
principles of good management
to law enforcement and helped
inspire “professionalism“ in
policing.

29.  The basic purpose of patrol is the elimination
of criminal opportunity
 The basic philosophy of Wilson is that patrol
needs to create an impression of
“Omnipresence” the police are everywhere
 Does not diminish a thief’s desire but limits
the opportunity

30. Principles of Organization of O.W. Wilson
Tasks should be grouped together in one or more
units under the control of one person. These tasks
may be divided according to:
(a) similarity in purpose, process, method,
or clientele (functional),
(b) the time (temporal),
(c) the place of their performance (spatial), and
(d) the level of authority needed in their
accomplishment.

31. Lines of demarcation between the responsibilities
of units should be clearly drawn by a precise
definition of the duties of each,
(a) duties of a unit should be made known to all
members of the unit.
(b) responsibility within the unit and between
units should be placed exactly.
(c) avoid duplication in execution and neglect
resulting from the nonassignment of a duty.

32. Channels will be established through which
information flows and through which authority
is delegated.
(a) These lines of control should correspond to the delegation
of authority, the placement of responsibility, the supervision
of work, and the coordination of effort.
(b) Lines of control should be clearly defined and well
understood by all members so that all may know to whom they
are responsible and who, in turn, is responsible to them.
(c) Exceptions to routine communication of information through
channels should be provided for emergency and unusual
situations

33. Structure and terminology should facilitate
the understanding of the purposes and
responsibilities of the organization by all its
members. Avoid exotic arrangements and obscure
jargon.
Each individual, unit, and situation should be
under the immediate control of one, and only
one, person, thus achieving the principle of unity
of command
and avoiding the friction that results from
duplication of direction and supervision.

34. The span of control of a supervisor should be large
enough to provide economical supervision, but no
more units or persons should be placed under the
direct control of one person than he or she is able
to manage.
Each task should be made the unmistakable duty
of someone; responsibility for planning, execution,
and control should be definitely placed on
designated persons.

35. Supervision should be provided for every member
of the organization and for every function or
activity.
Each assignment or duty should carry with it
commensurate authority to fulfill the
responsibility.
Persons to whom authority is delegated should be
held accountable for the use made of it and for the
failure to use it.

36.  Also known as a “block chart,” “plumbing
chart,” or a “wiring diagram,” the organizational
chart embodies the ancient adage that a picture
is worth 1,000 words.
 It uses rectangular boxes to represent
offices, units, or important individual officers in
an agency.

38. Bureaucratic-Scientific Management Model
Human Relations Model
Situational- Contingency Model

39.  Organizational principles are applied somewhat
rigidly, with the hierarchy principle given very
high priority. Authority is very precisely
allocated, with those higher up in the hierarchy
having more power. Rules are explicit, and
organizational discipline is enforced. The agency’s
organizational chart clearly defines areas of
jurisdiction and command-control relationships.
Organizational communications, command, and
control are expected to follow
the chain of command.

40.  Arising with the discoveries of the Hawthorne
group, hierarchy and command aspects were not
abandoned, but their importance declined. Lines
of command, control, and communication were
often ignored in favor of work groups, operating
as co-equals, even when they were comprised of
different ranks. Rules were replaced by flexible
guidelines. This model found expression
in the 1970s as team policing, community policing,
and empowerment of client populations in
criminal justice priority-setting became popular.

41.  These models promote flexibility and situational
management. The application of COMPSTAT in law
enforcement and problem-oriented policing are both
expressions of this approach. Criminal justice work-
teams are created, reorganized, and disbanded as
needed. There is more use of delegation and
operational control practices than in scientific
management,
but less workplace democracy than in human
relations applications. The scientific management
principles re-emerged as good practices, but not rigid
formulae.

42.  The division of labor in a criminal justice
organization will reflect functional, temporal, and
spatial demands placed upon it by its mission.
 temporal order - arrangement of events in
time
 spatial - pertaining to or involving or having
the nature of space; "the first dimension to
concentrate on is the spatial one"; "spatial
ability"; "spatial awareness"

43. Functional Divisions of Labor
Function is a factor in the Division of Labor.
The units within a large organization often will
have specialized functions and the people
assigned to these units will be specialists.
The functions they are called upon to perform
define their unit within the larger organization.

44. Functional Divisions of Labor
Examples from Law Enforcement:
◦ patrol units
◦ investigative units
◦ CSI teams
◦ dispatchers
◦ juvenile officers
◦ COPs program participants

46.  One of the Earliest Patrol Allocation Model
 Patrol Units are deployed based on the total
miles in the total area to be patrolled

47.  Developed by O.W. Wilson in the 1940’s
 Each type of crime was given a hazard
score, prioritizing the incidence of crime
 A total weighted sum for each region was
calculated with personnel being allocated
accordingly

48.  Queuing models attempted to overcome the
problems of geography and hazard formula
models
 Combined probabilistic demands for service
with geographic considerations to reduce
response time for urgent calls for service

49.  Based on the demand for police service
predicted by hour and geographic area, using
projections based on past demand data with
variations for weekly and seasonal variations
 This was the first attempt to apply
mathematical and probability modeling to
police patrol allocation

50.  Several mathematical models were developed
to attempt to maximize the suppression of
crime
 These models attempted to identify the
probability of intercepting a crime in progress
and the probability of the crime taking place
 The model suffered several flaws all of which
are assumptional rather then mathematical

51.  It was believed that the probability of space
time coincidence of crime and patrol could be
measured and that crime occurrence and
patrol were independent
 Future studies would limit the utility of these
models
 The variables that influenced these models
continue to influence patrol allocation to this
day

52.  Computer program designed to assist and
enable police departments to determine the
number of patrol units during various days
and times of the week
 Simple analytic model that does not attempt
to equalize the calls for service workload
across watches or shifts
 It’s goal is to deploy officers so response
times can be optimized

53.  Entirely controlled by user input
 Reflects no geographic structure
 Insensitive to location of patrol cars in a
geographic area
 Differences in crime rates, call-for-service
trends are not easily augmented into the
program

54.  PAM: Patrol Allocation Model, computerized
and elaborated versions of PAM represent the
current state of the art of patrol allocation
 Designed to determine the number of officers
needed to be assigned to patrol based on
established performance objectives:
Visibility, Response Time, etc.

55.  The number of needed officers is only as
accurate as the data used in the model
 Models provide an estimate of the number of
officers needed
 Models should not be used in lieu of
professional expertise
 Models contain errors because they don’t
account for variables in particular
jurisdictions

56.  Data used in allocation models is typically
previous years data
 A problem with mathematical models is the
failure of them to able to take into account
the fact that policing is a dynamic system
that adjusts to changes in the environment

58.  http://www.pmam.com/MAPP/

60.  Calls for Service
 Service Time: Average time between dispatch
and clearing the call
 Roadway Miles: Impacts Visibility
 Patrol Speed: Average speed 24.5 mph
 Geographic Area
 Response Speed

61.  Leave Time: Significant Impact on allocation
decisions
 1) Vacation Time 9) Light Duty
 2) Comp Time 10) Special Assignments
 3) Sick Leave 11) Jury Duty
 4) Training 12) Workmen’s Comp
 5) Holidays 13) Administrative leave
 6) Personal Days
 7) Military Service
 8) Family and Medical Leave Act

62.  If and officer is contracted to work 2,086
hours per year, (40 hours a week x 52 weeks)
 Taking Leave Rate into account, an officer is
available 1,550 hours a year
 In order to fill one position around the
clock, 5 days a week, 8 hours a day, almost
six officers are needed

63.  Policing Service Model: Decisions to take part or
not in Community Service Initiatives effects
staffing levels
 Visibility Objective: How often should a patrol
unit pass a given point
 Response Time: Response goals set by
administration
 Officer Availability: Officers available immediately
 Administrative Activities
 Self-Induced
 Self-Initiated Activity
 Unrecoverable Patrol Time
 Two-Officer Patrol Units

64.  Administrative Activities: Meal Breaks, other
Breaks, Court Time, Vehicle Maintenance, etc.
 Self-Initiated Activity: Traffic Stops, MV
Arrests, etc.
 Unrecoverable Patrol Time: Time to clear a
call, stuck in traffic, report writing
 Two-Officer Patrol Units: Allocation
adjustments needed when staffing a unit with
two officers

66.  Maximizes Officer Availability
 Reduction in Fatigue
 Increased Communication between officers
assigned to different shifts
 Maximize quality of life
 Reduction in Sick Time
 Higher Morale
 Savings
 Reduction in Overtime
 Efficient use of equipment

67.  Matching staff levels to service demand
 Revising Schedules to accommodate
vacations, comp time, sick leave
 Designing the schedule to accommodate
policy directives, contract needs
 Equipment shortages
 Inadequate time between shift changes
 Fairness in scheduling holidays, weekends
 Overcoming lack of communication between
shifts

68.  Accommodating training, meetings, special
assignments, administrative demands
 Overcoming restrictions on outside activities
such as education
 Overcoming employee fatigue, boredom, low
morale

70. Benefits: Traditional Work
Schedule, fatigue not an issue, shortest
workday, effective use of equipment
Drawbacks: Permanent Days Off,
Calls held for oncoming shift, limited time
off, lower morale

71.  Benefits: Allows for overlapping
shifts, less overtime, efficient shift changes
due to overlapping, power shifts, all officers
can be scheduled to work same day for
training, Increased morale due to more time
off
 Drawbacks: Expensive to
implement, possible 10 to 20% increase in
officer needed, Equipment shortage, costs
may increase

72.  Benefits: Fewer shift changes, rotating
days off, increased morale, more time
off, reduced sick time
 Drawbacks: Increased
fatigue, alertness and safety
decrease, Overtime costs increase

73.  5-9 Scheduling
 Overlapping Shifts
 Power Shifts
 Variable Start Times

74.  Shift Rotation
 Days Off Rotation
 Proportional Scheduling
 Scheduling Training
 Scheduling Vacation and Compensatory Time
 Administrative and Unplanned Absences

75.  Directed Patrol
 Hot Spot Patrol
 Aggressive Patrol and Zero-Tolerance Patrol

76.  Directed Patrol: Officers are directed to patrol
a specific location for a specific period of
time
 Watch for particular offenses
 Kansas City study showed that 1/3 of all
patrol time could be directed patrol
 It is proactive and aggressive
 Patrol units are given instructions directing
their activity
 Crime data needs to be analyzed

77.  Hot Spot Patrols:
 Studies found a substantial amount of crime
is concentrated in certain areas, “hot spots”
 Concentrated patrols targeting certain
crimes, drugs, guns, etc.
 Studies vary, some short term success, some
long term
 Data analysis needed before and after

78.  Aggressive Patrol and Zero Tolerance:
 High level of patrol intervention
 Traffic enforcement
 Minor offense enforcement
 Field Interrogations

79.  Problem-Orientated Policing: “POP” Incident
driven policing, problem solving with the
community
 The Broken Window Theory
 Compstat: accurate and timely
intelligence, rapid deployment, effective
tactics, ongoing assessment of effectiveness

80.  Post 9/11 Reforms: Information sharing
between agencies, eliminating “borders”
 Intelligence-Led Policing: Use of data
effectively, establishment of goals with
community involvement, input from patrol
officers

81.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M-
2oFo3dLK0

82.  Police Patrol Allocation and Deployment:
Fritsch, Liederbach
 Managing Police Organizations: Whisenand
 Managing Criminal Justice Organizations:
Kania, Davis
 Intelligence-Led Policing: Baker
 Lengthening The Arm Of The Law:
Ayling, Grabosky, Shearing

83. Questions?

84. 
 Thanks