1. 14.1 Introduction: beyond the sentence
14.2 Cohesion: Repetition; Reference;
Substitution; Ellipsis; Conjunction and
Lexical Cohesion
Reporter:
Villaceran, Ruth Klaribelle C.
BSED 3

2.  the grammatical and lexical relationship
within a text or sentence.
 the links that hold a text together and give it
meaning. It is related to the broader concept
of coherence.
• Coherence in linguistics is what makes a
text semantically meaningful. It is especially dealt with
in text linguistics. Coherence is achieved through
syntactical features such as the use
of deictic, anaphoric and cataphoric elements or a
logical tense structure, as well
as presuppositions and implications connected to
general world knowledge.

3.  Two main types of cohesion:
• Grammatical- referring to the structural content
• Lexical- referring to the language content of the
piece

4.  Aninstance of using a word, phrase, or
clause more than once in a short passage-
-dwelling on a point.
 Used deliberately, repetition can be an
effective rhetorical strategy for
achieving emphasis.

5.  Anadiplosis
• Repetition of the last word of one line or clause to
begin the next.
 "My conscience hath a thousand several tongues,
And every tongue brings in a several tale,
And every tale condemns me for a villain."
(William Shakespeare, Richard III)

6.  Anaphora
• Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of
successive clauses or verses.
 "I want her to live. I want her to breathe. I want her
to aerobicize."
(Weird Science, 1985)

7.  Antistasis
• Repetition of a word in a different or contrary
sense.
 "A kleptomaniac is a person who helps
himself because he can't help himself."
(Henry Morgan)

8.  Commoratio
• Emphasizing a point by repeating it several times
in different words.
• "Space is big. You just won't believe how
vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly big it is. I
mean, you may think it's a long way down the road
to the chemist's, but that's just peanuts to space."
(Douglass Adams, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the
Galaxy, 1979)

9.  Diacope
• Repetition broken up by one or more intervening
words.
 "A horse is a horse, of course, of course,
And no one can talk to a horse of course
That is, of course, unless the horse is the famous
Mister Ed."
(Theme song of 1960s TV program Mr. Ed)

10.  Epanalepsis
• Repetition at the end of a clause or sentence of
the word or phrase with which it began.
 "Swallow, my sister, O sister swallow,
How can thine heart be full of the spring?"
(Algernon Charles Swinburne, "Itylus")

11.  Epimone
• Frequent repetition of a phrase or question;
dwelling on a point.
"And I looked upwards, and there stood a man
upon the summit of the rock; and I hid myself
among the water-lilies that I might discover the
actions of the man. . . .

12.  Epimone (continuation)
 "And the man sat upon the rock, and leaned his head
upon his hand, and looked out upon the desolation. . . .
And I lay close within shelter of the lilies, and observed
the actions of the man. And the man trembled in the
solitude;--but the night waned, and he sat upon the
rock."
(Edgar Allan Poe, "Silence")

13.  Epiphora
• Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of
several clauses.
 "She's safe, just like I promised. She's all set to marry
Norrington, just like she promised. And you get to die
for her, just like you promised."
(Jack Sparrow, The Pirates of the Caribbean)

14.  Epizeuxis
• Repetition of a word or phrase for
emphasis, usually with no words in between.
 "If you think you can win, you can win."
(William Hazlitt)

15.  Gradatio
• A sentence construction in which the last word of
one clause becomes the first of the next, through
three or more clauses (an extended form
of anadiplosis).
 "To exist is to change, to change is to mature, to
mature is to go on creating oneself endlessly."
(Henri Bergson)

16.  Negative-Positive Restatement
• A method of achieving emphasis by stating an
idea twice, first in negative terms and then in
positive terms.
 "Color is not a human or personal reality; it is a political
reality."
(James Baldwin)

17.  Ploce
• Repetition of a word with a new or specified
sense, or with pregnant reference to its special
significance.
 "If it wasn't in Vogue, it wasn't in vogue."
(promotional slogan for Vogue magazine)

18.  Polyptoton
• Repetition of words derived from the
same root but with different endings.
 "I hear the voices, and I read the front page, and I know
the speculation. But I'm the decider, and I decide what
is best."
(George W. Bush, April 2006)

19.  Symploce
• Repetition of words or phrases at both the
beginning and end of successive clauses or
verses: a combination of anaphora and epiphora.

20.  Symploce (continuation)
 "They are not paid for thinking--they are not paid to fret
about the world's concerns. They were not respectable
people--they were not worthy people--they were not
learned and wise and brilliant people--but in their
breasts, all their stupid lives long, resteth a peace that
passeth understanding!"
(Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad, 1869)

21.  Thereare two referential devices that can
create cohesion:
• Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer
refers back to someone or something that has
been previously identified, to avoid repetition.
Some examples: replacing "the taxi driver" with
the pronoun "he" or "two girls" with "they". Another
example can be found in formulas such as "as
stated previously" or "the aforementioned".

22.  Themonkey took the banana and ate it.
 Pam went home because she felt sick.

23.  What is this?
 The dog ate the bird and it died.
 I went home to take a nap because I
thought it would make the headache go
away.

24.  Thereare two referential devices that can
create cohesion:
• Cataphoric reference is the opposite of
anaphora: a reference forward as opposed to
backward in the discourse. Something is
introduced in the abstract before it is identified.
For example: "Here he comes, our award-winning
host... it's John Doe!" Cataphoric references can
also be found in written text, for example "see
page 10".

25.  If you want some, here's some parmesan
cheese.
 After he had received his orders, the
soldier left the barracks.
 If you want them, there are cookies in the
kitchen.
 He's the biggest slob I know. He's really
stupid. He's so cruel. He's my boyfriend
Nick.

26.  Thereis one more referential device which
cannot create cohesion:
• Exophoric reference is used to describe generics
or abstracts without ever identifying them: e.g.
rather than introduce a concept, the writer refers
to it by a generic word such as "everything". The
prefix "exo" means "outside", and the persons or
events referred to in this manner will never be
identified by the writer.

27. A word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is
substituted for another, more general word.
• Example:
• "Which ice-cream would you like?" – "I would like
the pink one" where "one" is used instead of
repeating "ice-cream."

28.  Ellipsis
is another cohesive device. It
happens when, after a more specific
mention, words are omitted when the
phrase needs to be repeated.

29. A simple conversational example:
• (A) Where are you going?
• (B) To town.
 Thefull form of B's reply would be: "I am
going to town".

30. A simple written example:
• The younger child was very outgoing, the older
much more reserved.
 The omitted words from the second clause
are "child" and "was".

31.  sets up a relationship between two
clauses.
 the most basic but least cohesive is the
conjunction and.
 transitions are conjunctions that add
cohesion to text and
include then, however, in
fact, and consequently.
 can also be implicit and deduced from
correctly interpreting the text.

32. a linguistic device which helps to create
unity of text and discourse. In contrast to
grammatical cohesion, lexical cohesion
“[…] is the cohesive effect achieved by the
selection of vocabulary.” (Halliday 1994).

33.  Repetition- sometimes called reiteration, is
the most direct and obvious source of lexical
cohesion since it is the mere identical
recurrence of a preceding lexical item.
 Synonymy- refers to “[…] the fact of two or
more words or expressions having the same
meaning.” In this case, “[…] lexical cohesion
results from the choice of a lexical item that is
in some sense synonymous with a preceding
one […]” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 331).

34.  (a)
with identity of reference: Here, lexical
cohesion is established by synonyms in the
narrower sense on the one hand
and superordinates on the other hand, both
types referring back to the same entity.
• Example: I heard a sound, but I couldn’t figure out
where that noise came from.
-> Noise refers back to sound. Both terms have the
same level of generality and are therefore synonyms
in the narrower sense.

35. • (b) without identity of reference: In this case, a
lexical item that synonymously refers back to a
preceding one is not of the same entity.
• Example: Why does this little boy have to wriggle all the
time? Good boys don’t wriggle.

36.  Hyponymy: Describes a “specific-general”
relationship between lexical items.
• Example: Then they began to meet vegetation –
prickly cactus-like plants and coarse grass… .
-> Plants and grass are specific parts of
vegetation and therefore altogether form a
cohesive relationship.

37.  Meronymy: Describes a “part-whole”
relationship between lexical items.
• Example: She knelt down and looked along the
passage into the loveliest garden you ever saw. How
she longed to […] wander about among those beds of
bright flowers and those cool fountains, […].
-> Flowers and Fountains are typical parts of a garden
and therefore altogether form a cohesive relationship.

38.  3.
Antonymy: Describes a relationship
between lexical items that have opposite
meanings.
• Example: He fell asleep. What woke him was a
loud crash.
-> Asleep and woke are antonyms and therefore
form a cohesive relationship

39.  Collocation-“[…] a natural combination of
words; it refers to the way English words are
closely associated with each other.” (2005: 4).
 it is the tendency of at least two lexical items
to co-occur frequently in a language.
 can serve as a source of lexical cohesion
since it is “[…] one of the factors on which we
build our expectations of what is to come
next.” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 333).