READING LIST NOTES, 100 books and articles for Qualification Test, 2013.3.20

READING LIST NOTES
BOOKS
1. (book) Austin, J. L. (2002). How to Do Things with Words. Beijing: Foreign Language
Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 1962) (MALE)
The speech act theory begins with Austin. His assertion is that statements do more
than just say something—they do something in saying. Austin, forms, two categories
for utterances: constatives, refers to any utterances that have a truth-value; and
performatives, as pseudo-statements that do not just say something but do or perform
something.
According to Austin, utterances act according to certain conventions and a speaker must
follow in order to be considered ‘good’, ‘functional’, or ‘felicitous.’ When the speech act
fails in one or more of these conditions, Austin calls this situation either a misfire or an
abuse. They are outlined by Austin as follows:
(A.1) There exist conventional procedure, certain persons and certain
circumstances, and further,
(A.2) A given case must be appropriate for the invocation
(B.1) The executions by all participants are both correct and
(B.2) complete.
(Γ.1) Sincerity
(Γ.2) conduct themselves subsequently.
When conditions A and B are broken, there are cases of misfires. And when Γ conditions
Γ are broken, there are cases of abuses.
Failure of any one of these conditions could disrupt a successful uptake. Uptake, is
essential for a speech act to work, as it is the successful comprehension of the utterance.
Austin segments speech acts into three parts: locutionary acts, uttering words with sense
(sounds) and reference (semantic meaning); illocutionary acts, the act performed in
saying and the intention of the act, that works according to the rules of a “performative
formula” (context and text); and perlocutionary acts, the consequence of the utterance on
an interlocutor. It is the illocutionary act that carries the force of the action that the
utterance performs.
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For Austin meaning references illocutionary force, and he distinguishes them stating
traditionally, “meaning is equivalent to sense and reference” however he admits that
meaning is blurred between the locutionary and illocutionary acts of an utterance.
2. (book) Bloor, T. & Bloor, M. (2001). The Functional Analysis of English: A
Hallidayan Approach. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
(Original work published 1995)
This book provides an introduction to the analysis of English. The aim is to provide
the reader with the grammatical tools based on Halliday’s theories in Introduction
to Functional grammar. For Halliday, language is a “system of meanings.” When people
use language, they express their meanings. From this point of view, the grammar
becomes a study of how meanings are built up through the use of words and other
linguistic forms such as tone and emphasis.
Metafunctions, According to Halliday, the ways humans use language are classified into
three broad categories named Metafunctions (using Schwartz, How to fly a kite, catch a
fish, grow a flower).
1. Ideational metafunction: Language is used to express our perceptions of the world and
of our own consciousness. Ideational function (a boy rather than a girl learning to fish,
the writer has certain attitude ‘hidden” within the ideational framework) can be classified
into two subfunctions: the experiential (hooks are sharp, noise frightens the fish away)
and the logical (since establishes the logical relationship as a reason between the two
main ideas in the sentence).
a. the experiential metafunction is mainly concerned with content or ideas.
b. the logical function is concerned with the relationship between ideas.
2. Interpersonal metafunction: Language is used to communicate with people and to
express feelings, attitude, opinions and judgments (ought to, perhaps).
3. Textual metafunction: Language is use to relate what is said to the real world and to
other linguistic events. This involves the use of language to organize text itself (is
realized through the word order of the sentences, through the numerals, first, second,
third and fourth- It is the meshing of these functions in the lexicogrammar of the clause).
In almost any instance of language use, all three Metafunctions operate simultaneously to
express meaning.
Ch. 6 Focus on ideational function, language is used to express our perceptions of the
world and of our own consciousness using the concept of Process and Participant as the
entities. There is also circumstance as the third element in the “clause as representation.”
The Process centers on the part of the clause that is realized by the Verbal group and the
Participants are the entities involved in the Process. Halliday’s concept of process is an
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ongoing loop that is divided into three main processes, including material, mental and
relational. There are three major processes (and three minor):
1. Material Processes aassociate with outer experience of actions and events of the
material world,” like Jerry took the money.
2. Mental processes are construed by a person’s consciousness (by reacting on it or
reflecting on it and must be construed with at least one human participant) and are
realized through the use of verbs like think, feel, want, see, like, hate and so on.
3. Relational processes: Both inner and outer experiences can be construed using
“relational” and are realized by verbs like be or have (or some verbs that have same class
like seem, become, and appear and so on).
4. Verbal processes are (considered the category of borderline of mental and relational
process and) enacted in the form of language, like John said, “hold on.”
5. Behavioral Processes (have both mental and material aspects and are not pure mental
processes as) somehow relate to human physiological processes. A wider range of verbs
is considered to be behavioral related processes including a subconscious behavior like
“sleeping” to “verbs such as ‘dance.
6. Existential processes: are similar to relational processes as they typically have verb be.
They manifest something exists or happens as in the word “there”
3. (book) Booth, W.C. (1974). A Rhetoric of Irony. USA: The University of Chicago
Press. (MALE)
Booth identifies and examines the constructs of what he calls "stable irony," or
irony with a clear rhetorical intent, presented in a covert way with finite
application. The author’s real meaning is clearly implied. Booth created the term implied
author. He also contrasts with those that he considers unstable, or rather those ironies that
have not been clearly interpreted or understood that we have difficulty determining
whether the author is being ironic or not. (Sometimes it’s hard to find the meaning of
irony because irony can be misdirected or misinterpreted.)
Four marks of stable irony:
1. ironic statements are intended,
2. covert – intended to be reconstructed
3. the reader is not invited to reconstruct further ironies
4. irony is finite in application – the field of discourse is narrowly
described, and not about “life in general”
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What makes irony different from all communication? Human statements are surrounded
by nuances that are assumed to be understood by speaker and listener but elaborate
inferences are required in literature. Context is everything!
Four steps to reconstruction:
1. Reader must reject the literal meaning
2. Reader must try out alternative interpretations
3. Reader makes a decision about the author’s knowledge or beliefs
4. Reader chooses a determined meaning based on his beliefs about the
author
Context is the key, and for Booth there are two kinds. First, there is the literary context –
what we reconstruct as we read. Second, there is the historical context – in which the
piece was written and printed and read.
“The literary context is what we finally arrive at, in our total act of successful reading: it
does not exist for us until the passage clicks into place as a kind of completed whole. The
second exists before, during, and after this reading, available to be referred to as an aid in
our reconstruction – and also available as a possible distraction from a sound reading.”
Historical knowledge, including knowledge of genres, is thus often implied when
reconstructing stable ironies: a reconstructing of implied authors and implied readers
relies on inferences about intentions, and these often depend on our knowing facts from
outside the text.
**4. (book). Brown, G. & Yule, G. (2011) Discourse Analysis. (9th
Edition).Beijing:
Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press (by arrangement with the Syndicate of
the Press of the University of Cambridge).
The book takes a linguistic approach to the analysis of discourse and examines how
humans use language to communicate and how addressers construct linguistic
messages for addressees and addressees work on linguistic messages to interpret
them.
• The analysis of discourse is the analysis of language in use which provides the
functions of language.
• Functions of language;
o Transactional; language expresses the ‘content’
o Interactional; language expresses social relations and personal attitudes. It
attempts to find a common point of view between humans.
The role of context in interpretation:
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• In order to analyze discourse from a pragmatic point of view the analyst must take
into account the context within which the discourse occurs.
• Discourse analysts are also often interested in the relationship between the parties
to the discourse
• Reference (words refer to things) is treated as an action on the part of the
speaker/writer. Use. “Rome is a city in Europe..”
• But it is thought that actually ‘referring’ is not something an expression does, it is
something that someone can use an expression to do. “When in Rome..” Acts in a
similar way to mention.
Reference in text and in discourse :
Text; ‘the verbal record of a communicative event’
• Texts have texture; that is created by their being related to one another through
cohesive relation. Cohesion is realized by grammatical (realized by sound) and/or
lexical devices.
(If the interpretation lies outside of the text (requires contextual knowledge) it is said to
be an exophoric relationship which plays no part in textual cohesion.
If the explanation is within the text it is endophoric and does form cohesive ties within
the text.
o But there is the issue that sometimes the hearer may not have the relevant
contextual knowledge and so the communication will fail (exophoric). Or
if it is a long text it is possible that if something/someone is introduced
near the beginning the hearer/reader will not remember it (endophoric).
• Contains some critique of the idea of cohesion; a text can appear to have some
appearance of cohesion (due to apparent links between sentences) when in fact it
doesn’t really make up a text. However, Halliday and Hasen just say that there are
degrees of cohesion.
Coherence in discourse: coherence is realized by the interlocutor’s shared knowledge
(between the speaker and the hearer).
• Coherence; a logical, orderly, and aesthetically consistent relationship of parts. In
order for a text to be coherent it must be understandable, must follow a logical
order.
• Coherence (an understandable structure) in discourse is not the only thing that
helps it make sense.
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• We also learn how to read things, to guess what the most likely meaning of a
communication will be.
• Speech Act Theory explains how some unconnected utterances go together in
conversational discourse to form a coherent sequence.
o From the speaker’s point of view several sentences strung together may
constitute a single act. Thus a fairly extended utterance has cohesion.
5 (book). Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity.
New York: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, Inc. (FEMALE).
Performativity is a very important concept for understanding Butler’s book, Gender
Trouble. It is referred to the” capacity of speech,” and other non-verbal forms of
action, in order to perform a constructed identity. The term "performativity," derives
from speech act theory by Austin, who did not use the word "performativity," but did
give the name performative utterances to mean saying something was doing something.
Austin's account of performativity has been subject to extensive discussion in philosophy,
literature and beyond. Butler is one of the scholars who has elaborated upon and
contested aspects of Austin's account of performativity from the vantage point of
feminism. In her work performativity has played an important role in discussions of
social change.
The notion of performativity has its roots in linguistics and philosophy of language,
describes performativity as “…that reiterative power of discourse.” She used this concept
for gender development which is brought to life through discourse.
Butler focuses much on “gender performativity” and sees gender as an act that has
been rehearsed, much like a script. We as the actors make the script a reality
through repetition, and come to perform in the mode of belief. Butler sees gender
not as an expression of what one is, rather as something that one does.
Butler’s interpretation that “gender is performative”, thus can be concluded that
characterization is also a performative act (1990:xv).
Butler's concept of gender is social performance rather than a pre existing concept of
gender.
Gender is a social construct, constructed by society’s rules and culture. Gender is not
naturally occurring. Speech itself can be an action, and so certain modes of speech can
help create a construct of gender.
• Questions the notion of masculine and feminine
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o Accepts that masculine and feminine exist but claims that they don’t need
to, they aren’t ‘natural’ but instead socially constructed.
o Discourse utterances are to some extent what make gender, it’s not just
actions, it’s the ways in which we speak
 Discourse presents your identity and your idea.
o For example; the idea of masculine and feminine language.
o When we label certain modes of speech as masculine and feminine we
perpetuate the static notions of gender being pre assigned.
• She claims that new constructs of gender can arise, and should arise. In which
case they tend to arise from marginalized groups. Men and Women can choose to
rebel against the social construct of gender (through speech or other acts) in order
to signify rebellion against the accepted norm.
6. (book). Cameron, D. (2006). Performing Gender Identity: Young Men’s Talk and the
Construction of Heterosexual Masculinity. Jaworski, A. & Coupland, N. (Eds.) The
Discourse Reader. London: Routledge. (FEMALE)
Cameron reviews Butler’s book and agrees with her view. Gender is socially
constructed rather than naturally occurring.
Butler’s interpretation that “gender is performative”, thus can be concluded that
characterization is also a performative act (1990:xv).
o Butler's concept of gender is social performance rather than a pre
existing concept of gender. Speech itself can be an action, and so certain
modes of speech can help create a construct of gender. Discourse
utterances are to some extent what make gender, it’s not just actions, it’s
the ways in which we speak
 Discourse presents your identity and your idea.
o For example; the idea of masculine and feminine language.
o When we label certain modes of speech as masculine and feminine we
perpetuate the static notions of gender being pre assigned.
Compares Butler to Austin – views Butler’s view of ‘gender as performative’ as an
offshoot of Austin’s performative speech acts.
o Austin named performative utterances to mean saying something was
doing something.
o Austin stated that utterances brought something into being (they made it
happen)
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o Butler said that this can be extended to include discourse, actions, body
language. In which case all these things can bring gender into being
(through discourse, actions and body language an identity is constructed).
** 7. (books) Carter, R. & Nash, W. (1999). Seeing Through Language; A Guide to
Styles of English Writing. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc. (Original work
published 1990). (MALE)
The book is to help students - to "see through" language. It has an emphasis about
aesthetics, carried out through the functions of language. It is concerned with
creativeness, as developed through the processes of textual analysis and textual
composition. It enhances student's understanding of various types of text, and the ability
to turn perception into productivity through the process of writing.
• Style as deviation;
o Style is a specific way of doing something
o Often deviation IS style – when people move away from what is normal
they may be said to have a particular style.
o But by sticking to what is normal they may appeal to more people
o So for example Jane Austen stuck to the norm in order to appeal to more
people (her feminism was not strongly represented in order to avoid
alienating people).
• Style and Ideology;
o The writer can use linguistic structures to communicate their own beliefs
on the reader (e.g. Austen imparting feminism through P&P)
o But readers will all be positioned differently (#22book, Mills) according to
their own historical, sociological, and cultural contexts and thus will draw
different things from reading. (For example as mentioned in the paper,
readers who are used to living in a patriarchal society may rationalize
certain aspects of Elizabeth’s character as masculine in order to explain
them)
(Speech Act)
o Quasi Speech Acts;
• Speech acts that do not exist in the real world (when they exist in
literature) lack the force of the illocutionary intention.
• Can be thought of as pretend speech acts – no actual effect will
occur from their being spoken).
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8. (book) Carter, R. & Stockwell, P. (Eds.). (2008). The Language and Literature Reader.
London: Routledge. (MALES)
The book is an invaluable resource for students of English literature, language, and
linguistics. It provides an overview of the discipline and brings together the most
significant work in the field with integrated editorial material.
Stylistics; David Lodge
• Lodge aims to take a broad view of how stylistics has developed
• Originally the point of stylistics was to;
o Clarify the concept of style
o To establish for ‘style’ a place in the study of literature
o To develop more precise, objective, and inclusive methods for studying
style
o Lodge mentions a researcher called Spitzer considered to be the Father of
‘new stylistics’ Spitzer has two major achievements:
o Discovered that a particular literary effect may be related to a particular
ordering of language.
o He developed a method for dealing with the style of long and complex
structures, such as novels.
 Known as the ‘philological circle’
 When reading long passages if one finds certain expressions which
seem unusual and underline them, and then you compare the
underlined parts and a certain consistency will usually be found.
 Lodge notes that this method is vulnerable to criticism as it could
be construed as very subjective.
Style and Interpretation in Hemingway’s ‘Cat in the Rain’; Ronald Carter
• Carter analyses the short story “Cat in the Rain” with a consistent attention to the
connection between form and meaning but with the degree of attention to
linguistic features like cohesion, repetition and ambiguity.
• Carter notes that although the style of the story is simple and straightforward it
produces complex effects. It Suggests that these feelings and impressions that are
created by the story are due to linguistic patterning
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• Carter believes the story is about some kind of rift between the two American’s in
the story but Hemingway never mentions this specifically.
• Carter feels that ‘cat’ in the title is actually symbolic of something else.
• Continual usage of certain terms provides a sense of cohesion,
• There is ambiguity over the ‘cat’ – both the actual physical animal and what it is
meant to represent.
• Shifts in wording change the feeling of the story and leave the reader feeling off
balance; e.g. shift from ‘cat’ to ‘kitty’
• Carter feels all these linguistic devices are done purposely by the author to create
these feelings within the reader.
Final Chapter; Stylistics; Retrospective and Perspective
Provides an overview of stylistics and the authors think what stylistics can cover in the
future, including:
o Be theoretically aware; be aware of the growing body of theory, challenge
it and incorporate it where possible.
o Be sociolinguistic; should take into account the social, cultural and
ideological dimensions of reading.
o Be difficult; don’t avoid reading and trying to interpret challenging works
of literature
o Be precise;
o Be progressive; aim for better things. If a theory or approach does not
work it should be thrown out or fixed.
9. (book) Chatman, S. (1978). Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and
Film. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. (Male)
Chatman attempts to give an overview of narratology and stress narratives can be
analyzed structurally.
In this invaluable text to the fields of narrative theory and film/narrative studies, as a
structuralist Chatman offers an analysis of narrative by detailing the clear distinctions
between story (what is told) and discourse (how it is told).
Chatman notes that earlier work by Propp was useful because it tried to make a theory of
plot and separated the structure of narrative which is a distinction made generally by the
French structuralists and Russian formalists. The shortcoming with Propp's analysis was
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that it looked on simple folk tales which are not representative of modern narratives, and
it might lead to analysis without seeing the narratives as a whole.
Chatman believes that the object of study of narrative theory is literary discourse. The
task is not to criticize or prescribe, but to explore questions such as: How do we
recognize a presence of a narrator? What is plot? What is point of view?
Chatman stresses the distinction between the narrator and the author. The narrator might
or might not be present in the narrative while the author never is - he or she is instead the
real person behind the work and is always there.
Chatman goes on to show that narratives are structures. The distinction between story and
discourse is that Story is the content, while discourse is expression.
Chatman divides narrative discourse into narrative form (narrative transmission; the way
in which the story is told, e.g. P&P is told from Elizabeth’s point of view, other writers
might choose to use flashbacks to provide a back story for their characters) and its
manifestation (materializing medium: ballet, theatre).
Finally, Chatman differentiates between "reading" and "reading out", where the former
means surface reading and the latter means relating surface statements to deep
statements, moving between narrative levels, and therefore 'constructing' the story.
10. (book) Coulthard, M. (1977) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. London:
Longman. (MALE).
The central concern of the book is the analysis of “verbal interaction” in terms of
discourse. The book provides major theoretical advances in the description of
discourse. The findings of discourse analysis can be used to investigate second-language
teaching and first-language acquisition and to analyse literary texts.
• Discourse analysis is attempting to discover what language is and how it works.
• Discourse is made up of semantic meaning, grammar and phonetics; it looks into
how pragmatic meaning relates to the semantic meaning of individual words
which in turn is used to explain how sentences or utterances are meaningful in
their contexts.
e.g. Identical utterances can have different meanings in different contexts.
Coulthard exemplified speech act theory by Austin and provided his view that basically
an illocutionary act is a linguistic act performed in uttering certain words in a given
context, while a perlocutionary act is a non-linguistic act performed as a consequence of
the locutionary and illocutionary acts. The perlocutionary act is the causing of a change
in the mind of the listener. Austin observes that it is the distinction between illocutionary
and perlocutionary which seems likeliest to give trouble.
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Coulthard contends that unfortunately Austin does not purse the investigation of
perlocutionary objects and sequels which may lead to a study and reveal persuasive and
oratorical techniques.
Besides that, the concept of Adjacency Pairs is introduced to stress its importance to
understand conversational analysis: (In Paper)
• The Features including:
o They are two utterances long
o The utterances are produced successively by different speakers
o The utterances are ordered (first pair part and second pair part)
o The first pair part always selects next action (first pair part predicts the
occurrence of the second pair part)
o The utterances are related
e.g. hello
11. (book) Giora, R. (1998). Irony. In Blommaert, J. & Bulcaen, C. (Eds.), Handbook of
Pragmatics 1998. (pp. 1-21). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publ. Co.
(FEMALE)
Giora claims that irony is one of the most common tropes and refers to irony from a
general review of the traditional account of irony by Grice to the viewpoint of echoic
account and then pretense theory from Clark & Gerrig. She mentions “The classical
view of irony…recently this view has been challenged by pragmatists and cognitive
psychologists.”
• Specifically functions of irony
o Politeness mechanism (criticism as praise/praise as criticism)
o Social function (social cohesion/arguments within safe boundaries)
o Emphatic function (also referred to as informative function)
o Marginalized groups (particularly feminists) using irony to transmit
subversive ideas.
12. (book). Grice, H. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole & J. Morgan (Eds.),
Syntax and Semantics: Speech Acts, Volume 3. (pp. 41-58). New York: Academic Press
(MALE).
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Grice discusses the concept of implicature; a ‘kind of indirect, context-determined
meaning,’ in which the circumstances surrounding an utterance will require speakers to
establish the reference of the utterance’s meaning (in paper). The aspect of meaning is
that a speaker implies, or suggests without directly expressing. (Although the utterance
"Can you pass the salt?" is literally a request for information about one's ability to pass
salt, the understood implicature is a request for salt.)
Grice believes that utterances create expectations which guide the hearer towards the
speaker’s meaning. Grice describes these expectations are in terms of a Co-operative
Principle. Grice notes the four maxims of CP as in quantity, quality, relation, and
manner.
(i) The maxim of quantity
Give the required amount of information—not too much or too little.
(ii) The maxim of quality
Do not say that for which you lack evidence or which you believe to be false.
(iii) The maxim of relation
Make your contributions relevant to the purpose in hand.
(iv) The maxim of manner
Avoid obscurity, ambiguity and unnecessary prolixity, and be orderly.
Also notes that a participant in a talk may fail to fulfill a maxim in various ways (In
paper)
1. to violate a maxim, in order to mislead someone.
2. to opt out and refuse to cooperate or offer information.
3. to handle a clash of maxims where fulfilling one would break another.
4. to flout a maxim and blatantly fail to fulfil it.
Grice states that Irony flouts the Maxim of Quality (truthfulness). To Grice, it is perfectly
obvious to the ironist and his audience that what he has said is something he does not
believe. The ironist is trying to get across some other proposition than the one he
suggested. And this other one must be contradictory to what he suggested on the surface.
Conversational implicature must possess certain features:
1. A conversational implicature can be cancelled as the speaker refuses to cooperate (opt
out) or offer information. (A. Cancellability (defeasibility) — Implicatures can be denied
without self-contradiction.)
2. A conversational implicature requires contextual and background information and a
knowledge of what has been said. (B. Nondetachability — any way you had expressed
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the proposition you uttered would have given rise to the same implicatures) (with the
exception of implicatures arising from the rules of Manner).
3. C. Calculability — you can trace a line of reasoning leading from the utterance to the
implicature, and including at some point the assumption that the speaker was obeying the
rules of conversation to the best of their ability.
Non-Conventionality: “...conversational implicatures are not part of the meaning of the
expressions to the employment of which they attach.”
13. (book) Halliday, M. (2008). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Beijing:
Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2004) (Male)
For Halliday, language is a “system of meanings.” When people use language, they
express their meanings. From this point of view, the grammar becomes a study of
how meanings are built up through the use of words and other linguistic forms such
as tone and emphasis.
1. Ideational Metafunctions: Language is used to express our perceptions of the world
and of our own consciousness. Ideational function (a boy rather than a girl learning to
fish, the writer has certain attitude ‘hidden” within the ideational framework) can be
classified into two subfunctions: the experiential (hooks are sharp, noise frightens the fish
away) and the logical (since establishes the logical relationship as a reason between the
two main ideas in the sentence).
b. the logical meatfunction is concerned with the relationship between ideas.
2. Interpersonal Metafunctions: Language is used to communicate with people and to
3. Textual Metafunctions: Language is use to relate what is said to the real world and to
express meanings.
Ch. 5 (Clause as Representation) Processes:
According to Halliday, “the configuration of process + participants constitutes the
experiential centre of the clause.” The most central element in it is the process. The
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participants as a nominal group are also directly involved in the process; however, the
circumstantial elements are not directly involved in the process. The grammatical system
by which this is achieved is called transitivity. The transitivity system belongs to
experiential Metafunctions (a subfunction of ideational matafunction). The transitivity
system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types.
There are three major process types, including material, mental and relational processes.
(Focus on ideational function, language is used to express our perceptions of the world
and of our own consciousness using the concept of Process and Participant as the
entities. The Process centers on the part of the clause that is realized by the Verbal
group and the Participant are the entities involved in the Process.) Halliday’s concept of
process is an ongoing loop that is divided into three main processes, including material,
mental and relational. There are three major processes (and three minor):
2. Mental processes are construed by a person’s consciousness (by reacting to it or
6. Existential processes are similar to relational processes as they typically have verb be.
**14. (book) Halliday, M. & Hasan, R. (2001). Cohesion in English. Beijing: Foreign
Language Teaching and Research Press.
Cohesion is realized by grammatical and/or lexical devices, concerned with a
linguistic system: they are resources for text construction. This book studies the
cohesion that arises from semantic relations between sentences. Cohesion is a relational
concept. There are several techniques used for cohesion, including Reference (reference
is a semantic relation. If the interpretation lies outside of the text (requires contextual
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knowledge) it is said to be an exophoric relationship which plays no part in textual
cohesion. If the explanation is within the text it is endophoric and does form cohesive ties
within the text) from one to the other, substitution (6 apples- substation is a grammatical
relation), Ellipsis, repetition of word meanings, the conjunctive force of but, so, then,
lexical cohesion and the like are considered. Cohesion is defined as a set of possibilities
that exist in the language for making text hang together.
Looks at how language comes together to form a ‘text’ (a related whole) rather than just a
collection of random sentences:
Cohesion and the text (no limit on text):
Texture involves more than cohesion. There are two other components, one being the
textual structure and the other, the macrostructure of the text.
The textual structure is internal to the sentence: the organization of the sentence and its
parts in a way related to its environment (environment being the text/story itself).
The macrostructure of the text creates the text as a particular kind- conversation,
narrative, lyric, and so on.
• When something refers back to something that has already been mentioned it is
“anaphoric” (pg 2).
o E.g. Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them in a box
 The “them” in the second sentence refers back to the “six cooking
apples” in the first sentence. This is an anaphoric function that
forms cohesion between the two sentences.
• Within a text of one sentence there is likely to be cohesion due to the grammatical
structure of the sentence. When there is cohesion across sentence boundaries, it’s
necessary to find the cohesion to make sense of the text.
• While the grammatical structure will occasionally not happen as there will be a
clear break. Lack of grammatical structure will make the cohesion less obvious
but cohesion still exists.
Cohesion and Discourse
• Each discourse has its own structure. Discourse structure of a conversation is
reinforced by cohesion
• Cohesion explicitly ties together the related parts, bonding them more
closely together than to other parts that are not so related.
16

15. (books) Hennessy, R. & Ingraham, C. (Eds.). (1997). Materialist Feminism; A
Reader in Class, Difference, and Women’s Lives. New York and London: Routledge.
(FEMALE)
The section is the introduction to the book. The term Material feminism was first
used in 1975 by Delphy. The concept has its roots in socialist and Marxist feminism; the
authors describe material feminism as the "conjuncture” (a combination, as of events or
circumstances) of several discourses—historical materialism, Marxist and radical
feminism, as well as postmodernist and psychoanalytic theories of meaning and
subjectivity.” Materialist Feminism can be described as examining the means of
production, how money is made and earned, who is privileged and who lacks
opportunity. Using the broad lens of feminism to examine these issues Materialist
Feminists believe they can make society more equal for all rather than dividing between
cultural groupings.
They look at the lives and oppressions of women in a historical context
o Capitalism oppresses women by paying them a lower wage, exploiting
many by which some may benefit
o The concept that a capitalist society is also a patriarchal one, if capitalism
is torn down then women will be freer.
o Notes that a minority of women (who are wealthy) benefit at the expense
of many other women (who are poor), a class system perpetuated by
capitalism is partially responsible for the sufferings of many.
16. (book) Leech, G. (2008). Language in Literature: Style and Foregrounding. Harlow:
Pearson.(MALE)
This book focuses on two important concepts, Style and Foregrounding. Style is how
language is used according to different circumstances. In order to be stylistically
distinctive a feature of language must deviate from some norm of comparison. Stylistics
is the application of linguistic techniques to literary texts. It aims to apply both formal
and functional aspects of textual study.
Figures of speech as deviant language; Figures of speech provide a contradiction to the
expected (or normal) paradigm and thus can be considered deviant.
• Foregrounding; the idea of ‘unique deviation’ – e.g. deliberate deviation from the
norm through personification, extended metaphor etc.
o The idea of foregrounding is that normal literary art provides a
background to the deviation which is in the foreground.
o The thing in the foreground is known as the figure. Figures appear in two
types; (see pg 19).
17

 Syntagmatic; a different pattern of language imposed on the
normal linguistic code
 Paradigmatic; a gap (missing) in the established linguistic code, a
violation of the predictable pattern.
Cohesion helps pick out patterns of meaning that run through the whole text.
(Cohesion of foregrounding; foregrounded features identified in isolation are related to
one another, and to the text in its entirety. (like P & P’s ironies))
(Coherence of foregrounding; (the consistency and systematic character of
foregrounding)
-Cohesion between (different) deviations occurring in different parts of the
text (to link the text)
-Congruence (similarity) between deviations occurring concurrently (happen
at the same time), but at different linguistic levels).
• PAPER; Leech (2008) notes that the field of pragmatics, which studies the
meaning of utterances in context, places special importance upon Austin’s and
Searle’s speech acts and Grice’s cooperative principle (Leech, 2008:88)
• Yet the concept of irony as an unconventional meaning does not satisfactorily fit
into either paradigm—speech acts cannot account for unconventional acts that
break with sincerity, and the cooperative principle comes into conflict with
standards which heavily govern the conditions of carrying out politeness in
English speech. Leech (2008) gives criticism against these two theories, saying
that speech acts are too ‘regimented’, and the cooperative principle does not
“explain why people are so often indirect in the way they talk” (93). Leech offers
that analysts could faithfully use his politeness principle in turns with Grice’s
cooperative principle to achieve unconnected goals in communicating irony (96).
• Irony allows us a way to not break the maxims so blatantly (pg 96). So it helps us
achieve our goals in a polite way.
o Rather than being offensively frank (and thus breaking the maxim of
politeness) or being politely dishonest (and thus breaking the maxim of
truthfulness) we can be ironic instead. This allows us to convey an
offensive meaning (the intended meaning) while portraying a happy face
(the literal meaning).
• Communication is goal related; humans use it to help us achieve our goal of the
moment in a socially acceptable way.
18

• Thus human communication often apparently says one thing while meaning
another (perhaps in order to be polite and follow societal dictates) (while is still
observance of Grice’s maxims of communication).
• This goal orientated approach is normally applied to pragmatics but it could be
argued it should also be applied to discourse analysis and stylistics as well. (used
in paper).
• Pragmatics (analyze utterance), discourse analysis (analyze text), and stylistics are
all related; they all investigate the nature and formal structure of language in use.
There are some distinctions (analysis of single utterances vs analysis of text) but it
is suggested that this is more for convenience than anything else.
• Linguistics can be used to ‘close the gap’ between author and reader and help the
reader understand the text better. It is not necessary for the reader to be a
linguistics expert or to fully understand the author’s intentions behind the text.
But some understanding of author background, linguistics of the time etc can help
understand the text better.
17. (book) Leech, G., & Short, M. (2007). Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to
English Fictional Prose (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson.
This book describes linguistic analysis and literary criticism can be combined,
through the study of literary style. It draws on the prose fiction to demonstrate the
approach.
The main focus is concerned with the style of texts. Conversational analysis is
performed upon communication through discourse and text.
A distinction is made between communication as discourse and as text. Discourse is
linguistic communication seen as a transaction between speaker and hearer, as an
interpersonal activity whose structure is determined by its social purpose. Text is
linguistic communication (either spoken or written) seen as a message coded in its
auditory or visual medium.
Grice’s principles can be referred to as the rhetoric of text and discourse; they allow a
discourse to achieve its communicative goals effectively. But this is often done by
breaking the maxims. Breaching maxims is the perfect opportunity to exploit an utterance
that has different illocutionary acts within it.
The formulaic approach of speech acts is insufficient to explain the differences between
explicit utterances and those with ‘extra meaning,’ as author and reader often share a
secret communication through the usage of irony.
Define irony
19

o “as a double significance which arises from the contrast in values
associated with two different points of view.”
• The most usual kind of irony is that it involves a contrast between a point of view
displayed in the novel (or story) and the assumed point of view of the author and
hence of the reader.
o E.g. Austen displays her critical views of society and economic necessity:
whether stated through the novel as a whole or through conversation of her
characters, they tend to bein contrast to some assumed point of view held
by society in general at the time in which she lived.
18. (book) Liang, X.H. (2011). The Narrator’s Metafictional Manipulation: A Cognitive
Poetic Study of The French Lieutenant’s Woman. (Doctoral dissertation). Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China. (国内文献) (FEMALE).
This dissertation used within the paper to look at style of writing and organization.
Liang’s dissertation examines FLW as a metafictional novel.
o A metafictional novel is one in which it is apparent within the work that it
is a fictional novel and this is used to raise questions between fiction and
reality.
• Liang attempts to understand in what ways and through what linguistic devices
the author provides the appearance of a metafictional novel.
• Looks from a ‘cognitive poetic perspective’
• That is focuses on the cognitive abilities of the reader due to claims that
understanding of the novel is a two way process between the author and the
reader.
• So, she comes to three conclusions; the writer of FLW has manipulated the
metafictional devices in three aspects.
o The narrator’s presence is prominent.
o The narrator controls the readers’ perception.
o The narrator’s metaphorical thinking filters through both into his world
and his character’s world.
**19. (book) Liu, S.S. (1997). Outlines of Western Stylistics. Jinan: Shandong Education
Press. (国内文献) (MALE)
20

Liu uses James Joyce’s Dubliners because it is written in plain prose, he uses this to
show that stylistic analysis can be conducted successfully not only in poetic and
highly deviant usages of language but also in plain prose.
Style and Stylistics;
• ‘Style has three aspects of meaning:
o The manner or expression in writing or speaking, which changes at all
times according to the actual situations.
o The register, refers to the special variety of language used by a particular
social group that may have a common profession, or the same interests
o The linguistic features that seem to be characteristic of a text, e.g. Jane
Austen’s P & P.
• Stylistics can be divided into two areas:
o General Stylistics; covers studies of the varieties of language (news,
science, law, sports, etc.)
o Literary Stylistics:
 Formal stylistics; focus the refinement of a linguistic model which
has potential for further linguistic or stylistic analysis.
 Functional stylistics (broader sense); focuses on the aesthetic or
thematic function of language in literary texts.
Influence of Systemic-Functional Theory on Two Recent Stylistic Trends
• Discourse Stylistics
o Theoretical basis is the theory of discourse analysis (the socio-linguistic
analysis of natural language).
o Concerned with describing examples of actual language use in the context.
 So data for analysis is ‘actual language’ i.e. “naturally occurring
language in a social context of actual language use”
o Has 3 characteristics;
 the importance of the context of situation and of actual language
 stress on the interpersonal communication of language and its
studies on the actual texts
 stresses on the analysis of the cohesive relations
21

• Sociohistorical and socio-cultural stylistics.
o The way people treat things relies on their viewpoint (which embodies
features of socio-history and socio-culture)
• Systemic Functional theory; semantic components, these three components
overlap and relate.
o Textual
 How the text is structured as a message
 Focus is on cohesion.
o Ideational
 Construes human experience. It is the means by which we make
sense of "reality" (how we view the world).
 Transitivity analysis; works in Eveline (a story within Dubliners)
but fails in the the 2nd
part.
• Liu claims; “transitivity analysis is more applicable for
analyzing actual doings and happenings but may be less
applicable for analyzing certain descriptions of
psychological activities.
o Interpersonal
 Relates to a text's aspects interactivity (how people relate with
each other).
 Comprises three component areas: the speaker/writer persona,
social distance (between social groups) and social status.
Conclusion:
Instead of focusing on Systemic functional linguistics to study the relationship between
the linguistic system and the outside world (between language and society) Liu believes
that in literature analysis greater emphasis should be placed on studying the relationship
between the linguistic system and individual psychology or between language and
literary psychology (this is because the imaginary work of literature works through both
social structure and individual psychology, the latter being most important)(emphasis
should be placed on both reader and author).
20. (book) Martin, J., Matthiessen, C., & Painter, C. (2010). Deploying Functional
Grammar. Beijing: The Commercial Press. (Male)
22

The book in general reviews Halliday’s Introduction to Functional Grammar. The
authors think functional grammar is a theory of grammar. It intends for
deployment. He emphasizes that many principles of Halliday’s functional grammar
initially worked out for Chinese, which was the first language Halliday investigated in
detail. Subsequently he developed these principles in English. Halliday’s work has
inspired work on a wide range of languages.
1. Ideational metafunction: Language is used to express our perceptions of the world and
of our own consciousness. Ideational function (a boy rather than a girl learning to fish,
the writer has certain attitude ‘hidden” within the ideational framework) can be classified
into two subfunctions: the experiential (hooks are sharp, noise frightens the fish away)
and the logical (since establishes the logical relationship as a reason between the two
main ideas in the sentence).
b. the logical metafunction is concerned with the relationship between ideas.
2. Interpersonal metafunction: Language is used to communicate with people and to
3. Textual metafunction: Language is used to relate what is said to the real world and to
express meaning.
Ch 4, Transitivity-clause as representation (Transitivity is a resource for construing our
experience of the world in terms of configurations of a process, participants and
circumstances.)
Characterization of transitivity:
According to Halliday, “the configuration of process + participants constitutes the
experiential centre of the clause.” The most central element in it is the process. The
participants (as a nominal group) are also directly involved in the process, however, the
circumstantial elements are not directly involved in the process. The grammatical system
by which this is achieved is called transitivity. The transitivity system belongs to
experiential Metafunctions (a subfunction of ideational matafunction). The transitivity
system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types.
There are three major process types, including material, mental and relational processes.
(Focus on ideational function, language is used to express our perceptions of the world
23

and of our own consciousness using the concept of Process and Participant as the
entities. The Process centers on the part of the clause that is realized by the Verbal
group and the Participant are the entities involved in the Process.) Halliday’s concept of
process is an ongoing loop that is divided into three main processes, including material,
mental and relational. There are three major processes (and three minor):
2. Mental processes are construed by a person’s consciousness (by reacting to it or
6. Existential processes are similar to relational processes as they typically have verb be.
21.(book) McCarthy, M. (2002). Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Shanghai:
Shanghai Foreign Language Teaching Press. (MALE)
This book gives a practical introduction to discourse analysis. It examines how
discourse analysts approach spoken and written language. It also provides language
teachers for designing teaching materials and classroom activities.
What is discourse analysis?
• Discourse is “concerned with the study of the relationship between language and
the contexts in which it is used” (used in paper)
• Discourse analysis should not be separated from the study of grammar and
phonology (in order to understand the meaning of utterances we must be aware of
the grammatical and phonological stresses).
24

• In order to understand what is happening within discourse it is necessary to make
a distinction between form and function but they should be used hand in hand in
order to correctly conduct discourse analysis.
• Linguistic forms are grammatical, lexical and phonological ones.
• Function of discourse will be dependent on the participants, roles, and settings,
the same thing said by different people or in different circumstances can be mean
different things.
• Certain patterns may be apparent; e.g. Sinclair-Coulthard ‘Birmingham’ Model
(the model of spoken interaction)
• Transaction Exchange Move Act
• Discourse Analysis and Grammar: (discourse and grammar are inseparable)
o Structuring the individual utterance, clause and sentence, and structuring
the larger units of discourse are ultimately inseparable.
• Lexical Cohesion
o Related vocabulary items occur across clause and sentence boundaries in
written texts and across act and move boundaries in speech are a major
characteristic of coherent discourse.
• Phonology
o Intonation is important in discourse analysis to fully identify the meaning
of the discourse.
• Spoken Language
o Adjacency Pairs; pairs of utterances in talk that are mutually dependent
 E.g. a question predicts an answer, or an answer presumes a
question
o We can only be sure of the function of the initiating utterance (the first
pair-part) when it is contextualized with the response it gets (the second
pair-part) (e.g. if someone says ‘hello’ it could be expecting a response, or
in response)
o Turn taking; people take turns in discourse, either they are selected or
nominated by the current speaker, or if no one is selected, they may self-
select. There are also used as linguistic devices to avoid a turn. (Used in
paper).
25

• Written Language: Written Discourse; also helps to find patterns written discourse
to make it more easily understood.
o The more we learn how different texts are organized from small units to
large, the more likely we are able to create authentic materials and
activities for the classroom.
o Written discourse is less context dependent compared to spoken discourse.
o However, written discourse is written by someone for someone (a
particular target audience) and those outside that target audience may not
understand it.
22. (book). Mills, S. (1996). Knowing your place: A Marxist feminist stylistic analysis. In
Weber, J.J. (Eds.), The Stylistics Reader: From Roman Jakobson to the Present. (pp 241-
259). Great Britain: Arnold. (FEMALE)
Mills looks at contextualized stylistics (concerned with factors outside the text that may
have an impact on the text). She criticizes that there is too much concern over the author;
in actual fact the author doesn’t have complete control over what appears in the text.
They have constraints on them (e.g. societal constraints) and can only make decisions
within limited parameters.
Mills is concerned not only with the author but also the reader. So in order to understand
how the text is interpreted you have to look at the positioning of the reader (#7, book,
Carter & Nash). Positioning of the reader refers to the way in which the reader is
addressed by the text. For example (used in paper) certain ideologies may be transmitted
by the State (government) through text form. This is in order to help citizens recognize
their positions within a society and accept those roles within society.
Each text contains an ideological message that we accept (or reject), through this method
the reader is positioned. Gender is often ignored when it comes to analysis of reader
positioning. When analysis is done it often appears that the reader is positioned from a
male dominated view of the world (used in paper). However, it is difficult to position
women in a cohesive way, not easy to find links in between), as women are not a
coherent group (easily understandable, they have other loyalties to class, race, etc. in the
same way that a racial group is) they are all different and thus harder to position.
Female-addressed texts are often misinterpreted as male hating: when the target
readership is women then it is sometimes thought that the writers of the book hate men.
**In Weber, J.J. (Eds.), The Stylistics Reader: From Roman Jakobson to the Present. (pp
241-259). Great Britain: Arnold.
This book introduces several key essays which mark the development of stylistics as
a discipline.
26

Roman Jakobson's Theory of Communication refers to six factors required in verbal
communication. The addresser sends a message to the addressee. The message requires
a context (referential), verbalized with a code understood by both the addresser and the
addressee and finally a contact is reached (a physical channel and psychological
connection), enabling to stay in communication.
Formalist Stylistics
Formaliststylistics concentratesonthe linguisticformsinthetexts,payinglittleattentiontothefunction
oftheseformsin relation to the overall content.(onlinedefinition)-Whatarethey?
FunctionalStylistics
Functionalstylisticsemphasizesthe contextualfunction ofthelinguisticelements areusedto perform-
How do they do it?
Affective Stylistics
Affective stylistics is derived from analyzing further the notion that a literary text is an
event that occurs in time—that comes into being as it is read—rather than an object that
exists in space.
Pedagogical Stylistics
Thisreferstostylisticanalysisforteachingandlearningpurposes.Literarytextsmaysometimesbe
difficultforlearnerstoappreciate.Hence,ateachermayanalyzethe linguisticpatterns inthetext,
breakingdown complexlinguisticunitstosmalleronesto helpthelearnertograspthemessage/cohesion
within.
Contextualized Stylistics;
27

Concerned with factors outside the text that may determine or interact with the elements
within the text.
IdeologyandSpeechActTheory-Pratt,M.(FEMALE)
• Linguistic theories encode social values (Halliday), they are ideologically
determined.
• Speech act theory allows us to see language as social practice.
• Although speech acts are based on the existence of assumptions (in order to allow
inferencing) it is hard to classify exactly what that background knowledge is.
• Speech act theory also classified the speaker as one distinct, unified personality,
with an ideology that can be interpreted by the hearer.
• In actual fact people may act for all sorts of reasons (e.g. work, because a loved
one has asked them to etc.) thus removing the notion of one unified speaker.
**23 (book) Mody, M. & Silliman, E. (Eds.). (2008). Brain, Behavior, and Learning in
Language and Reading Disorders. New York: The Guilford Press. (FEMALES)
The purpose of the book is to gain a better understanding of how language and
literacy disorders develop. Specifically it’s focused on cognitive development. It claims
that attempts to understanding language and reading disorders have become
oversimplified – either they are explained through brain-behavior relationships; or they
are explained in theories of environmental constraints.
Brain; refers to how the brain develops and cognition (the thinking process) New
research has shown that knowledge does not originate in the genes or is fostered in the
environment. Instead knowledge, and language, is due to a process of ‘self-organization.’
This means that while a child can be exposed to knowledge it is down to the brain to
organize their learning. A child’s behavior is a reflection of past history so can never be
studied out of context.
24 (book). Muecke, D. (1980). The Compass of Irony. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
(Original work published 1969)
Muecke defines irony according to three essential elements:
o Irony is double layered
o There is some opposition between the two layers
o There is an element of ‘innocence,’ either a victim is unaware of irony
or the ironist pretends not to be aware of it.
28

• Verbal irony vs Situational:
The most basic classifications of irony: Verbal (also termed as Intentional) Irony and
Situational Irony.
“Verbal Irony implies an ironist, intentionally employing a technique. Situational Irony
does not imply an ironist but merely ‘a condition’ felt to be ironic, something that just
happens to be noticed as ironic.
There is a difference between the concepts of ironic and ironical which is essential to
understand verbal irony and situational irony. Ironic is referred to as the “the Irony of
Fate” or “practical irony” and is used to describe an event that occurs as a coincidence.
Ironical, describes one who intends to show something ironic is happening, and an ironist
induces the irony that takes place.
• Irony is classified into 3 grades and four modes. The three grades; overt, covert,
and private.
Muecke classifies irony into four modes: The first two modes, Impersonal Irony and Self-
disparaging Irony relate much to verbal irony in the sense that they are used intentionally
by a speaker; In Pride and Prejudice Elizabeth represents a prime example of both
Impersonal and Self-disparaging modes of irony. She uses many tactics of impersonal
irony to ridicule and also uses ploys to pretend her ignorance in order to force her victim
(object/target?), in many cases Darcy, into self-contradiction. In the other two modes of
irony, the role of the ironist is solely given to the author and the characters become either
discoverers or victims of a situational irony.
1. Impersonal: It has an emphasis on the ironic utterance itself. Impersonal Irony is
recognized by how it conveys mockery on the part of some victim. (It relates to echoic
irony, not related to personal experience instead based on something heard.)
2. Self-disparaging has a focus on the ironist’s persona as a major factor. Self-disparaging
ironists are much like Socrates; they confess their ignorance while their superiority is
made apparent by their ability to force their supposed superiors into contradicting
themselves.
3. Ingénu Irony, the character charms the readers with their naivety and incomprehension
of the world’s ways, often leading them to see what others cannot or discover the irony in
situations. (Jane Bennet as example)
4. Dramatized Irony is ‘the presentation in drama or fiction of such ironic situations or
events as we may find in life,’ (when the author of literature writes an ironic situation
into their play or book.)
29

He also reviews general irony as a type of irony towards the whole world/situation/ time
and romantic irony is the ironist’s way of manifesting in art his sense of life’s
contradictions.
25. (book) Propp, V. (1975). Morphology of the Folktale (2nd ed.). (L. Scott, Trans.).
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. (Original work published 1968) (Male)
The book is regarded as one of the major breakthroughs in the field of folklore in
the twentieth century.
Propp theorized that folk tales follow a certain formula, with as many as thirty-one
narrative functions used in each story. In testing his hypothesis he compares the themes
of about 100 tales and proves the application of his theory is effective and shows that the
formula is correct.
He comes to the conclusion that there is really only one fairy tale in its structure. There is
a significant amount of repeating functions (fundamental elements) in these classic
stories. Propp defines the function "as an act of a character, from the point of view of the
course of the action."
Functions are stable elements in the story, they never change. "The number of functions
known to the fairy tale are limited," while the stories vary greatly.
Propp’s structure is reviewed as the basic story structure and Propp is considered to be a
fascinating pioneer exploration of the narrative “competence” that the readers seem to
share.
**26 (book). Richards, K. (2003). Qualitative Inquiry in TESOL. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan. (MALE)
TESOL – Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
• Subject of the book is research skills.
The idea that Qualitative Inquiry (QI) is a soft research method leading to soft research as
opposed to quantitative research is subjective, but if you do it well, step by step then you
get very good results.
• The book aims to some improved methods of doing QI research to the reader.
• Within each section there are more in depth methods to be explored, from
undergraduate (level 1), masters (level 2), phd and doctorate (level 3).
• The whole book does follow a process – taking you effectively on a step by step
as to how to do research in an effective way.
30

• The conversational analysis used mentioned in the textbook refers to real life
conversation and suggests you should never use invented data. (Therefore, this
doesn’t relate to research done on conversations in Pride and Prejudice. As they
come from a novel they are definitely not naturally occurring.)
Part 1: focuses on data collection (chs 2-4): 3 different ways of research
• Interviewing
• Observation
• Collecting and analyzing spoken interaction (this is how the utterances from the
Pride & Prejudice have been collected).
Part 2: deals with the (how practical) practicality of the research project (chs. 5-6)
• Planning a project
• Analysis and representation (your findings)
27. (book). Saeed, J. (2000). Semantics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and
Research Press.
This book aims to give the reader some of the central ideas in the field of semantics.
Grouped into three main sections;
1. Preliminaries: is concerned of semantics within linguistics and its relations with the
disciplines of philosophy and psychology. Saaed suggests that semantics can’t be
separated from other aspects of the grammar model because semantics means to make
sense of the whole communication.
2. Semantic Description (Context and Inference): Examine how speakers rely on context
in constructing and interpreting the meaning of utterances. This part covers a huge scope
of reviewing Austin and Searle’s speech act theory section and summarizes that
understanding speech act or illocutionary force in Austin’s terms, of an utterance
involves the hearer in combining linguistic knowledge and Background knowledge is
needed to understand certain utterances – (background knowledge sometimes referred to
as non-linguistic knowledge as in perlocutionary suggested by Coulthard )
Semantics is the study of conventional, linguistic meaning. Pragmatics is the study of
how we use this linguistic knowledge in context. There is a relationship between the two.
3. Theoretical Approaches (Meaning Components): reviews three important semantic
theories regarding meaning components. Some semanticists have hypothesized that
words are not the smallest semantic units but are built up of smaller components of
31

meaning which are combined differently (or lexicalized) to form different words.
Recognizing these semantic components can help us to understand how words are fitted
together, to work together as a sentence.
28. Schiffrin, D. (2003). Approaches to Discourse. Malden: Blackwell. (Original work
published 1994) (Female)
This book is a guide to several important scholars’ frameworks, concepts, and
methods available for discourse analysis within linguistics, including speech act
theory, pragmatics, and Gricean Cooperative Principle.
The speech act theory begins with Austin and is also in part the brainchild of Searle.
Speech act theory asserts that statements do more than just say something— they do
something in saying. Speech acts are, according to Searle, the most fundamental elements
of communication, every utterance performs an act.
There is a close relationship between semantics and pragmatics, meaning, according to
Searle builds upon the relationship of reference (in locution) and intention (in illocution);
thus meaning in an U tethers reference together with intention, (meaning is a concept that
within an utterance intended within that particular context). Therefore, meaning, in part,
relates to the intention which is the force behind the words, so the illocutionary force,
explains the meaning via context.
Searle also review Austin’s segment of speech act of three parts: locutionary acts,
uttering words with sense (sounds) and reference (semantic meaning); illocutionary acts,
the act performed in saying and the intention of the act, that which works according to the
rules of a “performative formula” (context and text); and perlocutionary acts, the
consequence of the utterance on an interlocutor. The illocutionary act is especially
important to illustrate the force of the utterance. Searle breaks Austin’s locutionary act
into two acts, utterance act (phonetic and semantic coding) and propositional act (the
utterance’s content, one of the four definitive conditions which Searle uses to categorize a
speech act within the taxonomy.)
Schiffrin also reviews Grice’s Cooperative Principle. According to the cooperative
principle, meaning is logically derived from the concept of implicature, (where a word
signifies a semantic meaning but also relates that word to a context dependent upon the
speaker’s use according to conversational conventions).
The cooperative principle is the proposal that human communication is based on. Grice’s
maxims are:
(v) The maxim of quantity
Give the required amount of information—not too much or too little.
(vi) The maxim of quality
32

Do not say that for which you lack evidence or which you believe to be false.
(vii) The maxim of relation
Make your contributions relevant to the purpose in hand.
(viii) The maxim of manner
Avoid obscurity, ambiguity and unnecessary prolixity, and be orderly.
29. (book) Searle, J. (1975). Indirect Speech Acts. In Cole, P. & Morgan, J.(Eds.), Syntax
and Semantics: Speech Acts, Volume 3. (pp. 59-82). New York: Academic Press.
Searle states that the simplest cases of meaning are when a speaker means exactly
and literally what he says (In paper).
However there are exceptions to this rule, e.g. in hints, insinuation, metaphor, irony, etc.
In these cases a sentence that contains illocutionary force indicators for one form of
illocutionary act can also be uttered to perform ANOTHER illocutionary act with a
different propositional content. These are known as indirect speech acts. (Can you pass
me the salt?-question /Pass me the salt.-request)
The difficulty of explaining indirect speech acts is that the utterance contains a dual
meaning. The S communicates to the H more than he actually says by relying on their
mutually shared background information, both linguistic and non linguistic, together with
powers of rationality and inference on the part of the H.
- In order to explain indirect speech acts….. It is necessary to use speech
acts theory, certain general cooperative conversation principles for
conversation based on Grice, and mutually shared factual background
information of the speaker and the hearer, together with an ability on the
part of the hearer to make inferences.”
Some facts about indirect speech acts:
1) The sentence in question containing an indirect speech act doesn’t have imperative
force as part of its meaning.
2) The sentences in question are not ambiguous as between an imperative illocutionary
force and a non imperative illocutionary force.
3) These sentences are normally used to issue directives
4) The sentences are not (in the normal sense) idioms
5) These sentences are still normally idiomatic.
6) The sentences have literal utterances (in which they are not “also” indirect requests).
33

7) In cases where these sentences are uttered as requests they still have literal meaning
and are uttered with and as having that literal meaning.
8) If a sentence is uttered with the primary illocutionary point of a directive (the intended
meaning), the literal illocutionary act is also performed.
Problems with speech acts (distinctions recognized by Searle for indirect speech acts);
1. Some syntactical forms work better than others;
- Certain forms will tend to become conventionally established as the
standard idiomatic (colloquial) forms for indirect speech acts.
 (Can you pass me the salt?)
- In order to be plausible as an indirect speech act the sentence has to be
idiomatic to start with.
2. Certain sentences can have the same meaning but if phrased in a slightly different way
(by adding “please” for example) due to certain grammatical principles and illocutionary
forces.
- For example I want you to do it can have the same meaning as Do I want
you to do it? However the first one can have please added to it, the second
can’t.
30. (book) Searle, J. (2001a). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1969). (Male)
The speech act theory begins with Austin and is also in part the brainchild of Searle.
Speech act theory asserts that statements do more than just say something— they do
something in saying. Speech acts are, according to Searle, the most fundamental elements
of communication, every utterance performs an act.
There is a close relationship between semantics and pragmatics, meaning, according to
Searle builds upon the relationship of reference (in locution) and intention (in illocution);
thus meaning in an U tethers reference together with intention, (meaning is a concept that
within an utterance intended within that particular context).
Searle also review Austin’s segment of speech act of three parts: locutionary acts,
uttering words with sense (sounds) and reference (semantic meaning); illocutionary acts,
the act performed in saying and the intention of the act, that which works according to the
rules of a “performative formula” (context and text); and perlocutionary acts, the
consequence of the utterance on an interlocutor. The illocutionary act is especially
important to illustrate the force of the utterance. Searle breaks Austin’s locutionary act
34

into two acts, utterance act (phonetic and semantic coding) and propositional act (the
utterance’s content, one of the four definitive conditions which Searle uses to categorize a
speech act within the taxonomy.)
In this book, Searle points out the illocutionary act as the primary act and based on this,
Searle’s developed four condition rules which the illocutionary act is primarily
scrutinized through:
(1) Propositional content relates to the action of the statement regarding some
past, present or future activity or state.
(2) Preparatory rule referring to some pre-existing assumptions held by both the
speaker and the hearer.
(3) Sincerity rule involves the speaker’s subconscious attitude according to its
intention of the utterance.
(4) Essential rule which focuses on what the act counts as, in other words, the
illocutionary point or purpose of the utterance.
When the rules fulfilled, it is dubbed felicitous and works according to its proper
design.
31. (book) Searle, J. (2001b). Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech
Acts. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published
1979 (Male)
In this book, Searle explains that there is a close relationship between semantics and
pragmatics, meaning, according to Searle (2001a) builds upon the relationship of
reference (in locution) and intention (in illocution); thus meaning in an U tethers
reference together with intention. Therefore, meaning, in part, relates to the intention
which is the force behind the words, so the illocutionary force, explains the meaning
through context.
According to Searle, every utterance has an illocutionary point—a purpose for being
communicated, and it is upon those points that Searle makes his five classifications of
illocutionary acts: Searle states that illocutionary points are “the best basis for a
taxonomy”
(ASR) Assertives have the “point or purpose of committing a speaker… to
the truth of the proposition”.
(DIR) Directives are “attempts… by the speaker to get the hearer to do
something”.
35

(COM) Commissives have a point to commit the speaker… to some future
action.”
(EXP) Expressives are “to express the psychological state specified in the
sincerity condition.
(DEC) Declarations are with the purpose to “bring about some alteration
in the status or condition of the world.
(Searle (2001b) states that literal utterance contains meaning with an assertive
illocutionary force that makes the speaker to believe the statement with full sincerity.
Searle gives three features of literal meaning:
First, in literal utterance the speaker means what he says; second, in general the literal
meaning only determines a set of truth conditions relative to background assumptions
which are not part of the semantic content; and third, the notion of similarity plays an
essential role in any account of literal predication.
32. ( book) Short, M. (1996). Discourse analysis and the analysis of drama. In Weber, J.
(Ed.), The Stylistics Reader. (pp. 158-180). London: Hodder Headline Group. (Male)
The importance of this article is that Short shows us how pragmatic understanding
is achieved by turning to Grice’s account for meaning. He notes the difference
between “what a sentence means and what someone means by uttering that sentence.”
Grice first forwards the concept of implicature, a “kind of indirect, context-determined
meaning” in which the circumstances surrounding an utterance will require speakers to
establish the reference of the utterance’s meaning. This textual-contextual relationship is
in accordance with Austin and Searle’s accounts of meaning.
Short also points out that Searle classified conversational implicature as a subset of
“indirect speech act.” (For Searle, e.g. in hints, insinuation, metaphor, irony, etc are
indirect speech. In these cases a sentence that contains illocutionary force indicators for
one form of illocutionary act can also be uttered to perform ANOTHER type of
illocutionary act. These are known as indirect speech acts.) (Can you pass me the salt?-
question /Pass me the salt.-request)
Short concluded that both Grice and Searle insist that the implicatures are derivable from
an informal set of step by step inferences and there appears to be much conversational
meaning which cannot yet be sufficiently accounted for in this way. (169)
Grice and Searle say that in order for the hearer to understand what the speaker is
implying (the implicatures within their speech) it is necessary for the hearer to follow a
36

step by step process. Short says that if this step by step process is followed certain nuance
of conversational meaning won’t be understood or discovered.
33. (book). Simpson, P. (1993). Language, Ideology and Point of View. Great Britain:
Routledge (MALE).
• Point of View:
is not on what the text is saying (the ‘truth’) rather it is the ‘angle of
telling.”
• Language:
o As representation, as a projection of perspectives, as a way of
communicating attitudes and assumptions.
o Can view language from 2 points of view
 Stylistics: refers to using linguistics for the study of literature BUT
he emphasizes may be that there is no such thing as an exclusively
literary language, by definition any language used in a literary
work could be viewed as ‘literary language’
 Critical linguistics; seeks to interpret texts on the basis of linguistic
analysis. It expands the horizons of stylistics by focusing on texts
other than just literary ones. Critical linguists believe that language
reproduces ideology; language operates within a socio-political
context. Because language operates within this social dimension it
reflects, and some people say constructs, ideology (pg6).
• Ideology
o ‘describes what we say and think interacts with society’
o Ideology derives from the taken for granted assumptions, beliefs and value
systems which are shared collectively by social groups.
o When it is the ideology of a dominant social group it is said to be
dominant. Dominant ideologies come from powerful political and social
groups.
 Our view of ideology will be influenced by the linguistic practices
of the people who hold these views.
• Language (linguistic practices) presents a ‘point of view’ – something that is not
necessarily true but shows the ideology that the speaker holds.
37

• In the thesis we specifically looked at the chapter ‘Gender, Ideology and Point of
View’
o The idea that certain linguistic practices tend to perpetuate stereotypes that
are not perhaps any longer embodied in law.
o For example ‘androcentricism’ – the idea that male practices are looked on
with favor while feminine practices are viewed negatively
 This is no longer enshrined in law but is an ideology still held by
many – the way they say things may show their point of view.
34. (book) Simpson, P. (2003). On the Discourse of Satire: Towards a stylistic model of
satirical humour. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
This book covers three types of figurative language including satire, irony and humor.
(Simpson specifically places an emphasis on explaining Verbal irony as central to the
SMUT model of Satire, in respect of uptake).
Figurative language is understood to be opposing to literal claims. It provides a
distortion, which allows for a speaker’s implicit meaning to be inferred from a literal
statement. Irony, as a subset of satire, is often communicated through humor. These three
types share similarities and differences.
Humor is to see something that is laughable or amusing and has a variety of uses. For
example, humor is a social “lubricant” designed to ease tension; humor also has five
functions: aggressive, sexual, social, defensive, and intellectual, of which three in
combination provide satire.
Satire is a discourse which is used to expose the follies of others and is often
communicated through humor and irony. Simpson notes that satire manages three of
Ziv’s functions of humor, the aggressive, the social and the intellectual, and carries them
out simultaneously. The aggressive function occurs through a satirist’s feelings of
superiority. At the same time satire can carry out the social function of humor,
allowing people to ease tension. It provides an intellectual function; by being
nonsensical, satire provides relaxation through laughter.
For satire to work, certain pre-conditions must be met. These four model components of
satire are laid out by Simpson:
Setting Refers to the potential knowledge and culture base of the “satiree.”
Method The utterance can be delivered through exaggeration, ridiculing or
a reversal of values or irony.
38

Uptake The effect of the satirical utterance will have on the ‘satiree’,
dependent on the ability of the satiree to inference the meaning of
the satirist’s address.
Target An event, person, experience, or text which a satiree identifies in
uptake as the victim of the attack.
Humor, irony and satire are bound together; the use of one form of figurative language
may display another. Satire is non-existent without both humor and irony.
While these three forms entwined and contain similarities, they are also different. First,
verbal irony and satire are intentional, while verbal humor may be unintentional, for
example through a slip-of-the tongue that amuses listeners. Furthermore, humor is
intentionally overt, it is meant to be detected by the listener, while irony, and some cases
of satire, can employ a mask to disguise. Among these three, humor could be the most
simple one.
Irony is viewed as part of satire; it is possible that satire could not exist without irony, yet
they are not the same; irony is too complex to be defined as it is dualistically layered
while satire can be suggested as simply a reversal of thinking about the world.
(Speech acts cannot completely account for unconventional illocutionary acts, they do
offer a location for irony in the perlocutionary act (62). The notion for finding irony
there, rather than in the illocutionary force of the utterance relies on uptake. The concept
of perlocution in satirical discourse relies heavily on inferencing by the satiree; That is to
say that pragmatically speaking, irony requires a special effect on the part of the hearer’s
ability to infer any incongruity in an utterance according to their understanding of the
illocutionary force and the content given by the speaker.)
35. (book) Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics; A Resource Book for Students. New York:
Routledge. (MALE)
• Defines stylistics;
o ‘to do stylistics is to explore language and to explore creativity in
language use.’
o Exploring language is a way to increase our understanding of (literary)
texts as a whole.
Simpson stresses an importance on narrative stylistics:
Narrative discourse refers to re-expressing felt experience by matching up patterns to a
connected series of events. He created a diagram of a model of narrative structure, where
plot is the (abstract) storyline, and discourse is the narrative design (the actual text). The
39

diagram consists six narrative descriptions in stylistics, including textual medium, textual
structure, intertextuality, sociolinguistic code, and characterization in actions and events
and focalization.
As for a sociolinguistic model of narrative, he also explores further the structure of
narrative, focused on one particular model of narrative, the framework of natural
narrative developed by the sociolinguist Labov. He believes Labov’s model has proved
practical and productive in stylistics. He introduces the model and has some practical
activities developed around them.
Labov’s model of natural narrative includes six parts:
1. Abstract (what was this about?)
2. Orientation (Who or what are involved in the story, and when and where did it take
place?)
3. Complication Action (Then what happened?)
4. Resolution (What finally happened?)
5. Evaluation (So what?)
6. Coda (How does it end?)
• In this book as with his others Simpson discusses satire – (in paper) notes that
satire and irony are intertwined.
Within the paper, when discussing the idea of gender as being performative (constructed
through behavior or speech) we used the following from Simpson; Burton (1982) who
stated that realities, from which we can extend the framework to gender, are in fact
linguistically constructed (in Simpson, 2004:187)
36. (book) Simpson, P. (2008). Satirical Humour and cultural context: with a note on the
curious case of Father Todd Unctuous. In Carter, R. & Stockwell, P. (Eds.), The
Language and Literature Reader. (pp. 187-197). Great Britain: Routledge. (MALE)
Simpson attempts to sketch a general model for the study of satirical humor from a
stylistics viewpoint. Humor is designed to be noticed—though it can occur
unintentionally—however it also appears through figurative language, as for example
sarcasm can be an aspect of humor and is figurative.
40

o SMUT model
 Setting, method, uptake, target
• Definition of setting used within the paper.
• Setting; Refers to the potential knowledge base of the
satirist’s audience, referred to as the “satiree”, which is
generally derived from a principle reference point
involving culture, beliefs, knowledge or attitude.
• Simpson analyses dialogue from a TV show of Father Todd in order to understand
humor within a cultural context and he comes up to recognize a pattern.
o The dialogue analyzed contains ‘eliciting exchanges’
o The discourse is made up of a series of two part acts containing two
structural elements; Initiation & Response.
o The first speaker performs an eliciting move; the initiation
o The second speaker performs an informing move; the response.
o Each move element is realized by a single discourse act; all together they
make up the complete discourse.
• Simpson analyzes this TV show and comes up with this pattern for satirical
hummer (?) and he also draws on other works by Irish writers and this specific
pattern also found within the Irish writers which suggests that the type of satirical
writing, occurring in this discourse structure, may be culturally normal. Thus
writing, or discourse, can be considered to have a cultural basis.
37. (book) Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1981). Irony and the Use-Mention Distinction. In
Cole, P. (Ed.) Radical Pragmatics. (pp.295-318). London: Academic Press.
This article within the book first points out it is necessary to make a distinction
between using a word and mentioning it.
Use: “what” the expression refers to.
Mention: refer to the “expression itself.”
The distinction between use and mention can be illustrated for the word Rome:
Use: Rome is in Europe.
41

Mention: When in “Rome,” do as the Romans do.
This article also stresses that Ironical utterances do have one essential semantic property:
ironic utterances are cases of mention and are semantically discernible (from cases
where the same proposition is used in order to make an assertion, ask a question etc.)
This semantic distinction is crucial to the explanation of how ironical utterances are
interpreted and why they exist. Without this distinction the echoic character of irony
would be overlooked. Therefore it will be impossible to make the correct prediction that
where no echoing is discernable. No utterance could ever be classified as ironic. In this
respect, a pure logical-pragmatic approach to irony is too radical.
This suggests that Grice’s logical pragmatic approach to irony is too rigid. For Grice,
irony is rather an implicature according to a pragmatic domain of relating the utterance
according to a contextual interpretation.
Sperber and Wilson state there are “many different degrees and types” of echoic
mention:
“immediate echoes, and others delayed; some have their source in actual utterances,
others in thoughts or opinions; some have a real source, others an imagined one; some
are traceable back to a particular individual, whereas others have a vaguer origin. When
the echoic character of the utterance is not immediately obvious, it is nevertheless
suggested.”
38 (book). Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1995). Relevance: Communication and Cognition
(2nd
ed.). Malden: Blackwell Publishing
The book contends in order to be most efficient communication should be ‘relevant.’
Relevance in communication is the key.
• Relevance is understood in terms of cognitive effects and processing efforts
o Cognitive effects; a relevant utterance is one that extends the mutual
cognitive environment to the greatest effect.
o Processing effort; the most efficient communication is one that requires
the least processing effort. Ostensive behavior provides obvious clues to
what is being said. This extends to ostensive-inferential communication,
from such behavior or utterances clues can be drawn by H as to what S is
thinking. So tropes (e.g. echoic irony) can be said to be part of ostensive
inferential communication.
The most relevant utterance is not necessarily the most literal one (therefore not the best
one). Figurative language is understood to be opposing to literal claims. It provides a
distortion, and an intentional vagueness, that allows for a speaker’s implicit meaning to
be poetically inferred.
42

Therefore, in fact implicitly inferred communication is far richer, fuller and optimally
relevant. Contextual or background information is needed for the hearer to infer correctly.
39. (book) Thornborrow, J. & Warineg, S. (2000). Patterns in Language: Sylistics for
Students of Language and Literature. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research
Press. (Original work published 1998
This book uses linguistic analysis to investigate the aesthetic use of language in
literary (and non-literary) texts.
The authors focus on the recurring linguistic patterns which are used by writers.
To the authors, the goal of stylistics is not simply to describe the formal features of texts
but to show their functional significance for the interpretation of the text. Style is
understood as a study of the selection of certain linguistic forms over other possible one.
They point out what makes the writing of Jane Austen distinctive and great is not just the
ideas expressed but the choices of language available to her.
The book specifically points out in a chapter to discuss the literal language and figurative
language. For them, the first meaning for a word that a dictionary defines is the literal
meaning. When language used as a figurative way, it is trope for a rhetorical purpose.
For figurative language, they compare two common but different figurative speeches as
in simile and metaphor. A simile is a very explicit way to say something is like
something else; such as ‘Your hands are as cold as ice.” Metaphor is another linguistic
process to compare one or two shared features between two very different things like
“Your hands are blocks of ice.” These are two different patterns of figurative language
although they don’t have any significant difference in meaning.
40. (book). Toolan, M.J. (1988). Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction. Great
Britain: Routledge. (MALE)
This classic text explores a range of written, spoken, literary and non-literary
narratives. It shows what logical attention to language can reveal about the narratives
themselves, their tellers, and the readers.
The book provides an introduction to narrative; narrative appears in all forms of writing.
• Scope of analysis; narrative within literature, folktales, stories by and for children,
spoken narrative arising out of interviews and conversations, and stories in the
media.
• Propp’s morphology of the Russian fairytale is reviewed by Toolan as the basic
story structure and Propp is considered to be a fascinating pioneer exploration of
the narrative “competence” that the readers seem to share.
The book also has a special emphasis on the articulation of narrative text which
includes two parts:
43

First part focused on time, focalization and narration.
Second part focused on character, setting and free indirect discourse known as FID,
according to Toolan, readers are not consciously aware of this linguistic tool FID being at
work, and we may think of it as a sort of foregrounded narrative, neither pure narrative
nor pure character-expression.
1. Time: the most influential theorist of text time is Genette, who isolates three major
aspects of temporal manipulation or articulation in the movement from the story to text
(narrative text)
• Order: this refers to the relations between the assumed sequence of events in the
story and their actual order of presentation in text.
• Duration: for Genette this chiefly concerns the relations between the extent of
time that are supposed to have actually taken up, and the amount of text devoted
to presenting those same events.
• Frequency: how often something happens in story compared with how often it is
narrated in text.
2 Focalization: a viewpoint from which things are seen, felt, understood, and assessed (as
opposed to orientation which is a wider, less visual term which relates to “cognitive,
emotive and ideological” perspectives).
3. Narration
Toolan has a focus on stories of class and gender;
These are examined because Toolan found them to be some of the most troublesome
subjects. He notes that even today women and workers are marginalized in most written
narratives.
For the 19th
century writing, “women are conceded sensibility, depths of feeling and
understanding but they are rarely conceded power or independence” as controlling
agents.
(In paper) Toolan notes that few examples of “agentive” females in literature until the
approach of the 20th
century. “Agentive” females refer to these females who are able to be
in charge of their own destiny.
41. (book) Verdonk, P. & Weber, J. (1995). Twentieth-Century Fiction: From Text to
Context. London: Routledge.
44

The essays in the book focus on The linguistic strategies in the areas of the
narrative, textual level, and context by applying recent trends in literary and
language theory to a range of 20th Century fiction. They are presented to assist critical
reading and evaluation.
Specifically Simpson and Montgomery’ Language, Literature and Film stresses an
importance on narrative stylistics: They apply their stylistic model of narrative structure
to a successful novel, Cal.
They created a diagram of a stylistic model of narrative structure, where plot is the
storyline, and discourse is the narrative design. Thus the discourse may show all kinds of
narrative devices such as flashbacks and flashfowards. The diagram consists six narrative
descriptions in stylistics, including textual medium, textual structure, intertextuality,
sociolinguistic code (the backdrop of Northern Island’s divided society), and
characterization in actions and events and focalization (to the authors, focalization refers
to “point of view” or “angle of telling.” When the narrator is the character whose point of
view is represented is called the “reflector of fiction, Cal is consistently the reflector of
fiction: events are described from his viewing position and mediated through his
consciousness.)
(As for a sociolinguistic model of narrative, he also explores further the structure of
narrative, focused on one particular model of narrative, the framework of natural
narrative developed by the sociolinguist Labov. He believes Labov’s model has proved
practical and productive in stylistics. He introduces the model and has some practical
activities developed around them.)
**42(book). Wang, Z. L., Li, F. N., Zhou, Y. L., & Liu, C. P. (2006). An Anthology of
English Literature Annotated in Chinese. Beijing: The Commercial Press. (国内文献)
Anthology; A published collection of poems, short stories, novel excerpts or other
writings. In the book, I compared several notes, criticism and standpoints written by the
authors, including William Shakespeare’s Hamlet; Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice;
Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield; Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway and D.H.
Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers and so forth.
43. (book) Yang, M., Wang, K., & Wang, H. (2006), Chinese Culture: An Introduction.
Beijing: Higher Education Press. (国内文献)
The book focuses on Chinese culture as one of the world's oldest cultures. Important
components of Chinese culture include history, society, philosophy, literature, arts, etc.
45

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