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2. Order Number 9311747
Contemporary artists utilizing news media: Appropriation,
criticism, and activism in art education
Wyrick, Mary Louise, Ph.D.
The Pennsylvania State University, 1992
U M I300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Ariror, MI 48106
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3. The Pennsylvania State University
The Graduate School
Department of Visual Arts
CONTEMPORARY ARTISTS UTILIZING NEWS MEDIA
APPROPRIATION/ CRITICISM, AND ACTIVISM
IN ART EDUCATION
A Thesis in
Art Education
by
Mary Louise Wyrick
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
December 1992
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4. We approve the thesis of Mary Louise Wyrick.
Date of Signature
lizabeth J. Garber 'Elizabeth J.
Assistant Professor of Art Education
and Women1s Studies
Thesis Adviser
Co-Chair of Committee
wTT cnn 7 ^rent Wilson
Professor of Art Education
Co-Chair of Committee
In Charge of Graduate Program
in Art Education
Robert Ott
Professor of Art Education
John*-^. Kissick
Assistant Professor of Art
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5. ABSTRACT
This study surveyed publications and artworks to analyze
contemporary artists who use news media in conjunction with
their artmaking. Artists were grouped in a structure of
artmaking practices that focus on news media appropriation,
news media criticism, and co-optation of news media for
activist purposes. The problem was posed: How should
critical and activist strategies be incorporated into the
teacher preparation curriculum through study of current
events issues and contemporary artists using news media? The
study detailed how preservice elementary education majors in
an art education methods course effectively integrated art
and media criticism, interpretation of contemporary artworks,
and study of news media. Preservice teachers observed in the
study explored potential applications of the study of
contemporary artists who use news media critically to address
a range of race, age, gender, and class concerns relevant to
classroom teaching. The relevance of criticism and
intervention in teacher preparation was discussed through
application of transformative curriculum theory. It was
concluded that study of critical and activist artistic
practices is particularly useful in helping students identify
the impact of current events and issues of representation in
development of a transformative pedagogy.
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6. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES.................... vi
Chapter 1. A CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT FOR CHANGE............ 1
News Media, Art, and Education....................... 2
Contemporary Curriculum Theory: Challenging
Social Structures in the Classroom....... 8
Research Precedents in Mass Media Education.... 10
Artistic Practices as Subjects for Study
in Teacher Preparation.................... 17
The News Media Component of This Study. .... 24
An Introduction to My Process of Research........... 27
Chapter 2. TWENTIETH CENTURY ARTISTS USING NEWSMEDIA:
A STRUCTURE FOR UNDERSTANDING ARTMAKING PRACTICES... 34
Socially Responsive Artmaking in the Eighties...... 34
A Proposed Structure for Classification............. 36
Appropriation of Visual News Schemata......... 37
News Media Critique............................. 95
Activist Co-optation of News Media ..... 132
Chapter 3. FROM CRITICAL ANALYSIS TO THE TEACHER
PREPARATION CURRICULUM............................... 174
Visual Arts in the Elementary School: "Art Ed 003"
The Preservioe Population...................... 175
Components of "Art Ed 003"..................... 176
Research Logs: Writing as Pedagogy............ 179
News Critical Practices in Teacher Preparation 185
Analyses of Log #1: Targeting News Issues
and Selecting Artists..................... 189
Analyses of Log #14: Applying News Criticism.. 200
Summary of Students' News Critical Responses... 212
Appropriation as an Artmaking Practice
in Studio Production for Teacher Preparation... 214
Activism in Teacher Preparation..................... 226
Race Relations.................................. 228
AIDS Awareness.................................. 232
Feminism......................................... 242
Summary of Findings 247
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7. V
Chapter 4. A TRANSFORMATIVE PEDAGOGY FOR ART EDUCATION.. 251
News Media in a Transformative Curriculum.......... 251
News Media as Construct........................ 252
Utilizing News as Discourse.................... 254
Obstacles to Implementing a Transformative Pedagogy
in Art Education................................ 259
Art Ed 003: Successes............................... 262
Beginning with Students' Experience............ 265
The Contemporary Artworld as a Site
for Transformation......................... 271
Contemporary Multiple Voices................... 272
Honing the Model: Toward a Transformative Pedagogy
for Art Education............................... 275
Applications in Future ElementaryClassrooms........ 280
Suggestions for Future Research..................... 284
In Conclusion......................................... 290
REFERENCES................................................. 291
Appendix A. RESEARCH LOGQUESTIONS....................... 302
Appendix B. LOG #14...................................... 304
Appendix C. LESSON PLAN.................................. 315
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8. vi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. Jerry Kearns, "Head Spook: William Casey, Director
of the CIA." 1984, Acrylic on acetate, 43" x 48,"
Courtesy of the Alternative Museum................. 108
2. Leon Golub, "White Squad." 1984, Lithocrayon and
newspace, 22" x 39," Courtesy of the Alternative
Museum........................................ Ill
3. Francesc Torres, "Disinformation— Information Before
Television (long ago and far away)." 1939-1985,
Mixed media on wall, Courtesy of the Alternative
Museum..................... 113
4. "B,” "Maleface," in the style of Adrian Piper.
1992, Photocopy, Tempera paint and markers on
paper, 18" x 22.".................................... 193
5. "K," performing "Waiting," by Faith Wilding.
1992.................................................. 195
6. "K," quilt square based on women's issues.
1992, Tempera paint, oil crayon and photocopy
on paper, 16" x 16."................................ 196
7. "F," Protest poster. 1992, Tempera paint,
markers, and coal chips on paper, 18" x 22."...... 198
8. "H," Pro-life statement in the style of KeithHaring.
1992, Tempera paint on paper, 18" x 22."........... 205
9. "I," "It's a Big World," in the style of Barbara
Kruger. 1992, Photocopy and chalk on paper,
18" x 22."..... 208
10. "L," "Cornered," in the style of Adrian Piper.
1992, Newspaper and tempera paint
on paper, 18" x 22."................................ 211
11. "M," "Kix," 1991, Tempera paint on paper,
18" x 22."........................................... 225
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9. 1
Chapter 1
A CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT FOR CHANGE
This study has evolved from my attempts to find how pre­
service elementary education majors in an art education
methods course can effectively integrate art and media
criticism, interpretation of contemporary artworks, and study
of news media in their future classrooms. Students need to
study contemporary artists, news media and written criticism
to understand art and mass media as cultural production with
embedded social and ideological dimensions. In this study, I
will show how analysis of selected contemporary artistic
practices is particularly useful in helping students identify
the impact of current events and issues of representation in
news media sources. Since these issues are an integral part
of many contemporary artworks, I will show how examining
these issues and analyzing their presentation in news sources
also enhances understanding of the artworks. A goal of this
study is to explore potential applications of the study of
contemporary artists who use news media critically in
addressing a range of race, age, gender, and class concerns
relevant to classroom teaching. A more general goal of this
study is to address the two-pronged problem of relating what
contemporary artists and critics are doing and how that work
is relevant to the classroom.
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10. News Media, Education, and Art
2
New technologies that today broadcast twenty-four-hour-
a-day news reports have impacted greatly on local and global
communities. During the Persian Gulf crisis, it was often
reported that world leaders such as Saddam Hussein use Cable
News Network (CNN) as a primary source of information.
Political operatives have always attempted to influence
public opinion and access to information, but CNN's
continuous and immediate live coverage has changed the face
of the news. Live broadcast tours of battleships and
terrorists1 attacks alike are carefully staged by various
political factions to use the news media. This broadcast
rhetoric becomes part of our popular culture because of its
accessibility to the public on television and in ensuing
printed news journalism. I can, at any time, watch several
versions of the news along with the world's leaders. This
immediacy of news broadcasts all over the world makes it
possible for these mediated events to become the backdrop of
my own experience.
In addition to becoming part of the backdrop of my lived
experience, new technologies in interactive news broadcasting
will increasingly enable viewers to actively participate in
the global drama. I can already call in to vote in a poll,
to speak to a commentator, or to question a speaker. The
news media are becoming more interactive media, and the
enabling technologies are spreading deeper into the world's
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11. 3
wildernesses. While traveling in Yucatan and Chiapas,
Mexico, last summer, I observed numerous apparently
indigenous people living in thatched huts similar to those
pictured on the walls of ancient Mayan pyramids in that
region. Much to my surprise, some of these homes were
equipped with televisions and many had access tocable TV.
While visiting Costa Rica the year before in a hotel room
which was without hot water, I watched cable news broadcasts
of a dirt track racing tournament from Charlotte, North
Carolina. Our broadcast news media in the United States, for
better and for worse, are not only bringing information from
other cultures to us, but are also spreading our popular
culture on a global scale. In many instances, it appears
that our popular culture reaches residents of third world
countries before our advanced technologies in medicine and
education.
The systematic presentation of information in the
broadcast and printed news media is important tostudy
because it is the most accessible way we have oflearning how
to become informed participants in a democracy that impacts
the world. We can observe the world's leaders as they access
broadcast news media on a daily basis to influence the global
community. Whether or not we choose to engage in political
activism, it is important that we understand the struggles of
our contemporaries and the potential for change in the
political arena through media co-optation. This study will
show how artists and art critics can provide particular
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12. 4
insights toward critical understanding of how news media can
be used in a curriculum based on empowerment.
Contemporary art critical journals can increasingly be
studied to find connections between the worlds of art and of
sociopolitical issues. The May 1992 Artforum included
editorials and feature stories about the fall of communism,
artists' resistance in Yugoslavia, and a story about shelters
for the homeless. Artforum and other art journals circulated
nationally and internationally are also increasing their
coverage of media studies with the inclusion of reviews of
film, television, and music. A 1991 Artforum featured a
review by New York University professor of media studies
Stuart Ewen. He, as did many journalists, critiqued the
recent news coverage of the Persian Gulf war and the attempts
of the Bush administration to control the images and
information gathered by teams of reporters. Ewen discussed
how the Vietnam war was the first "living room" war people
could experience at home by watching television. According
to Ewen, the Bush administration blamed the loss of the Viet
Nam war on the public outcry which arose as a result of the
horrifying news images and resolved to prevent such negative
public opinion in future crises. Ewen’s criticism details
how coverage of the Persian Gulf crisis was carefully
orchestrated and often censored by the Bush administration.
Traditionally the province of "master" artists sanctioned
within a museum/artmarket framework, many art journals such
as Artforum are broadening their scope to include critical
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13. studies such as Ewens' which question such presentation of
news information to the public.
An underlying assumption I have made in this study is
that social and political representations in contemporary
news media need to be questioned. In his book All Consuming
Images: The Politics of Style in Contemporary Culture. Ewen
(1984) questioned how news has entered the realm of popular
culture by becoming an entertainment commodity. He analyzed
how news presentation has been adversely affected by the
stylization of broadcasters, newsrooms sets, camera angles,
and graphics, all designed to attract viewers and good
ratings. In televised news broadcasting and printed
journalism as well, "truth must be transformed into drama, a
thriller, entertainment. Within such a context, the truth is
defined as that which sells" (p. 265). Ewen believes the
power of news to utilize new technologies in information
gathering and transmission has been compromised by its
merging with the business world. Ewen wrote that we need to
teach news and media criticism to help viewers become
critical consumers who demand complete coverage that is more
than entertainment from news broadcasters.
I have spent the last three years examining ways to
utilize news media as a subject for critical study through
its uses in contemporary art and in the teacher preparation
curriculum. When asked to target current issues that might
be used to develop curricula for the public school classroom,
many preservice elementary education majors do not know where
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14. to begin. They need help to identify issues which can
pertain to all subject areas to be taught in the classroom.
In addition to enhancing the work of contemporary artists,
study of current news sources provides a springboard for
debate and discussion of socially relevant issues in the
classroom. Such discussion shows that the classroom is not
an isolated site, but is part of a local and global community
in which politicians, steel workers, artists, children, and
other workers live. More explicit methods are needed to help
preservice teachers identify current public issues relevant
to the public school student population. Using news media
and the issues presented helps these future teachers look
outside of the classroom to the changing world and to adapt
their curriculum to change.
Many contemporary artists are responding to systematic
discrimination and social inequities by synthesizing and
utilizing new potentials of news media in their work. A
primary question I will answer in this study is how news
media are being appropriated, critiqued and accessed by
artists, to include disenfranchised groups such as people
with AIDS, women, and minorities. An important dimension of
the study of news media is the potential for an active and
interactive role of the viewer in using news media. Students
can learn to address issues such as censorship in news media
by studying how artists question repressive representation.
Recent controversies involving National Endowment of the Arts
{NEA] funding of art exhibits and public artworks, for
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15. 7
example, have caused contemporary artists, writers, and
performers to rally against censorship. The news media have
proven to be important vehicles for consciousness raising for
the public and for resistance to conservative attempts to
curtail NEA support for controversial artworks. Ewen (1984)
perceives the news media increasingly as tools of oppression
for the same conservative ideologies which have been used to
justify silencing of certain groups of artists. By studying
artists' co-opting of news media in responding to censorship,
students can learn what discriminatory practices to question
and how to challenge sanctioned ideologies that support them.
In this study, I will relate current news sources to the
contemporary artworld, targeting meaningful public issues
that teachers need to articulate for children. I will show
how artmaking practices and public information can be
identified as subjects for study that is responsive to social
change. While most students at all levels consume mass
media, they often do so passively and uncritically. Studying
artists' responses to news media and synthesizing them into
written and visual forms can challenge the student to
interact with both art and news media. This critical
*
interaction can situate the student as a maker of meaning,
who can formulate and reconstruct empowering versions of
reality.
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16. 8
Contemporary Curriculum Theory; Challenging Social
Structures in the Classroom
For students to become empowered, they need to
understand and learn to challenge oppressive social
structures. Many contemporary curriculum theorists address
the issue of empowerment for disenfranchised groups who are
subtly silenced in public school systems as well as in the
machinery of government bureaucracies and media production.
They propose curricula based on change of systems which
reproduce domination of certain social groups over others.
Paolo Freire (1974), Henry Giroux (1988) and others attack
what Giroux calls neoconservative trends in schooling which
do not result in social and political mobility for students.
Current curricula, according to these educational theorists,
transmit and reproduce a power structure which benefits a
privileged few. They call for a "critical pedagogy" that
supports a curriculum of empowerment concerned with
motivating students to call into question realities presented
to them that perpetuate oppressive social and political
systems.
In his book The culture of silence. Paolo Freire (1974)
compares his experiences in teaching Brazilian peasants with
traditional classroom practices in the United States. A
culture of silence in both settings is the result of the
implication that peasant workers and students alike are
considered to be culturally illiterate (pp. 1-58). The
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17. 9
Brazilian workers and United States students are "silenced"
by an approach to education which transmits cultural
knowledge without acknowledging the individual's potential
for creating meaning. Freire and others advocate giving
voice to those subcultures experienced by students that are
not always validated within mainstream cultural contexts.
Giroux (1988) has written that contemporary mass media
could provide sites for challenging social systems. Mass
media "contains within its technology the possibility of real
communication among people, i.e., people could become
transmitters as-well as receivers of information" (p. 79),
and that "While the visual media are not the only force in
promoting social and cultural reproduction, they may be the
most powerful" (p. 83). However, Giroux identified problems
with the implementation of mass media as sites of
transformation. "The electronic media are in the hands of
the corporate trust, and it would take a redistribution of
power and wealth to place them at the public's disposal"
(p. 83). Giroux has pointed out that although electronic
media are available for use, people tend to use them for
leisure rather than for educative or political purposes.
More work is needed to teach students how to access the
activist potentials of mass media to effect social
trans formation.
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18. Research Precedents in Mass Media Education
10
In "Mass culture and the eclipse of reason," Stanley
Aronowitz (1977) identified needs in education which are
related to uses of media. He believes the typical
consumption of mass media has contributed to a decline in
academic and reasoning skills. There is a need to "combat
the student's growing tendency to view things literally
rather than conceptually" (p. 83). In this article, he also
cited students' general inability to think dialectically, to
see things in wider contexts, and to make connections between
seemingly unrelated objects and events. He says students are
tied to "factuality" and "have difficulty in using concepts
which may contravert appearances" (p. 83). Aronowitz
concludes that the passive viewing of consumer oriented media
programming are responsible for the decline in development of
these cognitive skills.
Toward Civilization; A Report on Arts Education (1988),
a publication compiled by the National Endowment for the Arts
seems to concur with Aronowitz. In the report, the function
of "the media" as part of a section entitled "The Arts
Sector" is addressed:
The most pervasive influence of the arts
sector on young people’s perception of art and
culture comes through the communication media-
television, publishing, recording, radio, and film.
The most potent of these is television. Young
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19. 11
people spend more time in front of the television
set than in class— over six hours a day. (p. 151)
Toward Civilization affirmed that students should be taught
to think critically about what mass media have to offer.
Educators and artists should not dismiss "popular media" and
should take advantage of "the enormous power to improve
education in the arts" (p. 152). Toward Civilization
allotted equal space in the document to "media" and "visual
arts and design." The NEA encourages that we use media
technologies to teach the arts, and that we teach students to
become discriminating consumers of mass media. Toward
Civilization provides a rationale for teachers of art to
examine connections between the visual arts and media. It
also suggests that we look at how mass media targets
audiences and develops whatever is marketable.
Vincent Lanier (1969), Manuel Barkan and Laura Chapman
(1967), Laura Chapman (1982), Paul Duncum (1987, 1989), and
Dan Nadaner (1984, 1985) wrote about the implications of
using mass media sources in art education. Their projects
acknowledged the importance of film, television, and other
mass media to student populations and were some of the first
to incorporate these media into art educational contexts.
Vincent Lanier focused on uses of "popular arts," primarily
film, in response to social crises in the late sixties. In
"The Teaching of Art as Social Revolution" (1969), Lanier
called for a complete revamping of the way we teach art to
"give the art class a share in the process of
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20. 12
exploring social relationships and developing alternative
models of human behavior in a quickly changing and, at this
point in time, quickly worsening social environment"
(p. 314). He cited John Dewey to establish that popular arts
and fine arts do not differ "in kind" and share a "basic
community of function" (p. 315). Breaking down this
hierarchy takes on a social function because youth, including
disadvantaged youth, have easy access to popular culture. He
wrote, "The concept of art curriculum recommended in this
paper conceives of the teaching of art as a deliberate,
planned, and recognized vehicle for effecting social change"
(p. 315). Lanier supports teaching students to challenge
social structures with desired social changes beginning in
the classroom. Lanier expounds upon how pop music, film, and
television can be studied to find ways to challenge social
systems and can be used as teaching tools and as studio art
media in the classroom.
Manuel Barkan and Laura Chapman wrote about the
possibilities that television offered as a teaching medium.
Their Guidelines for Art Instruction Through Television for
Elementary Schools (1967) outlined a program series that
could expand classroom discussions in aesthetics to the
community to include works of artists, crafts workers and
commercial designers. In Instant Art. Instant Culture: The
Unspoken Policy for the Nation's Schools (1982) Chapman
identified a need for inclusion of public, collaborative, and
popular arts in school programs. She further identified a
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21. 13
need for teaching about mass media:
In relatively few schools or teacher preparation
programs will you find solid teaching about the
aesthetic, metaphoric, or functional aspects of
architecture; of urban, industrial, or graphic design;
of photography, television, and film, or of the
ceremonial arts in which visual forms are used to
commemorate important life events, (p. 36)
Barkan and Chapman were some of the first to explore the use
of television in the classroom and recognized early on the
growing importance of mass media.
Dan Nadaner bridged this gap between the world of media
and the classroom. In 1985, he wrote that art educational
curriculum needs to be structured to help students deal with
contemporary visual culture made up primarily of mass
reproduced photographic images. In "Critique and
Intervention: Implications of Social Theory for Art
Education," Nadaner (1984) argues for a sociological critique
of meaning in art. He wrote, "Concepts of harmonious design
and significant form are inadequate; a more problematic,
self-aware and socially informed approach to representation
is needed" (p. 20). He recommended alternatives in teaching
practices that include diverse world views represented in
images, a confrontational approach to artmaking, and an
interventionist approach that creates alternative art forms
in response to social critique.
Australian art educator Paul Duncum (1989) laid
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22. 14
foundations for a socially critical art education that goes
beyond study of art as cultural artifact. Beginning with
Lanier's (1969) description of socially critical art
education, Duncum builds on research of Nadanar (1985) and
Laura Chapman (1978) to assert that we must look at "issues
of power and domination" in culture (p. 14). He also uses
the word "interventionary" to describe art education that is
neither passive nor "reactive," but that seeks "being at the
centre of social issues and ethical considerations" (p. 22).
Duncum advocates a dynamic use of popular culture in the
classroom. In his 1989 article, "Clearing the decks for
dominant culture: Some first principles for a contemporary
art education," he cites mass communications theorists such
as J. W. Carey (1989) and D. McQuail (1987) to support his
identified need for using mass media in art educational
contexts. Duncum maintains that "cultural standards are the
product of argument as much as agreement" (p. 213). Here, he
defines a cultural dynamic in which people not only consume
but can also utilize mass media to transform. When people
can challenge and reconstruct cultural standards, there is
potential for empowerment for the users of mass media.
Duncum discusses mass communications theorist J. W.
Carey (1989), who suggests that mass media be studied as a
site where culture is made and transformed. Duncum says that
students are familiar with and value what he calls "dominant
culture," or popular mass culture. The student's valuing of
mass media is often at odds with the teacher's valorization
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23. 15
of "fine arts," according to Duncum. The rejection of
popular culture as subject for study does not take into
account the complexity of establishing boundaries between
"high" and "low" artforms. Duncum shows how the boundaries
between "fine" and "popular" arts have been blurred through
history (Shakespeare's plays, he points out, were performed
for mass audiences). He advocates that art education:
seek an insider’s experience, with a collaborative model
of production, to respect students for how they cope
with the conditions imposed upon them, to acknowledge
the perennial nature of dominant culture content, and to
recognize the changing political and social contexts in
which cultural standards are established, maintained,
and revised are first principles for a socially relevant
art education. Such an art education would both earn
the right and possess the potential to contribute
critically to the meanings, values, and beliefs students
form with dominant culture, (p. 214)
Duncum sets a useful precedent for advocating use of mass
media in art education which includes news media sources. He
also uses a collaborative model that empowers students to
critically consume and utilize contemporary media. His model
involves the teacher's collaborating with the student's
cultural literacy in popular media instead of dictating a
"high" culture canon.
Duncum's article does not address the numbers of
contemporary practicing artists who use mass media and,
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24. 16
specifically, news media as sources for their visual
artworks. He also assumes a schism between the "fine" arts
agenda of the art educator and the "popular" arts agenda of
the student when many art teachers in the U.S., at least,
utilize some form of mass media in design, printmaking,
collage, or other studio art assignments. Duncum's view is
valuable in privileging mass media and in placing the student
as a maker of meaning. My study will acknowledge the
interchanging of mass media worlds with academic and art
worlds that could support Duncum's collaborative model for
art learning.
Studies are needed in art educational literature that
examine practicing visual artists and their effective use of
media images and presentational strategies as models for
student artmaking. Further, news media have something to
offer that other media do not, a focus on systematically
presenting information about current public affairs and
social experience. Critical study of news media combined
with study of artists using those media provides students
with strategies for transformation that Duncum, Giroux,
Freire, Aronowitz, Lanier, and Nadaner call for. In my
approach to selection of visual artists and political issues
for study, I will consider lived experience of the student
and popular culture as a part of larger social realities that
can be understood through contemporary artists. Further, my
focus on news media critique and on news media co-optation
will examine public information and how it can be critiqued
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