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Introduction To Temperature
Controllers
                                                              On/Off
                                                              An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature
                                                              control device. The output from the device is either on
                                                              or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will
                                                              switch the output only when the temperature crosses
                                                              the setpoint. For heating control, the output is on when
                                                              the temperature is below the setpoint, and off above
                                                              setpoint.
                                                                                                                                               Z
                                                              Since the temperature crosses the setpoint to change
                                                              the output state, the process temperature will be cycling
                                                              continually, going from below setpoint to above, and
                                                              back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly,
                                                              and to prevent damage to contactors and valves, an on-
                                                              off differential, or “hysteresis,“ is added to the controller
                                                              operations. This differential requires that the
                                                              temperature exceed setpoint by a certain amount
                                                              before the output will turn off or on again. On-off
                                                              differential prevents the output from “chattering” (that is,
                                                              engaging in fast, continual switching if the
                                                              temperature’s cycling above and below the setpoint
                                                              occurs very rapidly).
                                                              On-off control is usually used where a precise control is
                                                              not necessary, in systems which cannot handle the
                                                              energy’s being turned on and off frequently, where the
The Miniature CN77000 is a full featured                      mass of the system is so great that temperatures
microprocessor-based controller in a 1/16 DIN                 change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm.
package.
                                                              One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a
How Can I Control My Process Temperature Accurately           limit controller. This controller uses a latching relay,
and Reliably?                                                 which must be manually reset, and is used to shut down
                                                              a process when a certain temperature is reached.
To accurately control process temperature without
extensive operator involvement, a temperature control
system relies upon a controller, which accepts a
temperature sensor such as a thermocouple or RTD as                               ON         ON           ON         ON
input. It compares the actual temperature to the desired
control temperature, or setpoint, and provides an output              Heater
to a control element.                                                                  OFF        OFF          OFF        OFF

The controller is one part of the entire control system,
                                                                   Temperature
and the whole system should be analyzed in selecting
the proper controller. The following items should be
considered when selecting a controller:
  1.    Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and
        temperature range
  2.    Type of output required (electromechanical
        relay, SSR, analog output)
  3     Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional,
        PID)
  4     Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm,
                                                               Setpoint
        limit)
                                                                                                                                On-Off
What Are the Different Types of Controllers, and How                                                                            Differential
Do They Work?                                                                                                                   (Deadband)

There are three basic types of controllers: on-off,                                                Time
proportional and PID. Depending upon the system to be
controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or                         ON/Off Temperature Control Action
another to control the process.



                                                           Z-110
Introduction To Temperature Controllers Cont’d
Proportional                                                     temperature difference. If the temperature is below
                                                                 setpoint, the output will be on longer; if the temperature
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the              is too high, the output will be off longer.
cycling associated with on-off control. A proportional
controller decreases the average power being supplied            The proportional band is usually expressed as a
to the heater as the temperature approaches setpoint.            percent of full scale, or degrees. It may also be referred
This has the effect of slowing down the heater, so that it       to as gain, which is the reciprocal of the band. Note,
will not overshoot the setpoint but will approach the            that in time proportioning control, full power is applied to
setpoint and maintain a stable temperature. This                 the heater, but is cycled on and off, so the average time
proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the          is varied. In most units, the cycle time and/or
output on and off for short intervals. This “time                proportional band are adjustable, so that the controller
proportioning “ varies the ratio of ‘on’ time to ‘off‘ time to   may better match a particular process.
control the temperature. The proportioning action
occurs within a “proportional band” around the setpoint          In addition to electromechanical and solid state relay
temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions         outputs, proportional controllers are also available with
as an on-off unit, with the output either fully on (below        proportional analog outputs, such as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to
the band) or fully off (above the band). However, within         5 Vdc. With these outputs, the actual output level is
the band, the output is turned on and off in the ratio of        varied, rather than the on and off times, as with a relay
the measurement difference from the setpoint. At the             output controller.
setpoint (the midpoint of the proportional band), the            One of the advantages of proportional control is
output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time    simplicity of operation. It may require an operator to
are equal. If the temperature is further from the setpoint,      make a small adjustment (manual reset) to bring the
the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the                  temperature to setpoint on initial startup, or if the
                                                                 process conditions change significantly.

      15 Sec. On         5 Off

                                                                        Time Proportional                     4-20 mA
                                                                                                            Proportional
                                                                    Percent On Time Off Time      Temp      Output   Percent
                                                                      On    Seconds Seconds        (ºF)     Level    Output
                                 Repetitive                           0.0      0.0      20.0    over 540     4 mA      0.0
         20 sec. Cycle                                                0.0      0.0      20.0      540.0       4 mA      0.0
             Time
                                                                     12.5      2.5      17.5      530.0       6 mA     12.5
                                                                     25.0      5.0      15.0      520.0       8 mA     25.0
       Time Proportioning at 75% Output Level                        37.5      7.5      12.5      510.0      10 mA     37.5
                                                                     50.0     10.0      10.0      500.0      12 mA     50.0
                                                                     62.5     12.5       7.5      490.0      14 mA     62.5
                                                                     75.0     15.0       5.0      480.0      16 mA     75.0
                                                                     87.5     17.5       2.5      470.0      18 mA     87.5
                                                                    100.0     20.0      0.0       460.0      20 mA    100.0
                                                                    100.0     20.0      0.0     under 460    20 mA    100.0

                                                                 Proportional Bandwith
                                                                       Example: heating
                                                                       Setpoint: 500˚F
                                                                       Proportional Band: 80˚F
                                                                                        (±40˚F)

                                                                 Systems that are subject to wide temperature cycling
                                                                 will also need proportional controllers. Depending upon
                                                                 the process and the precision required, either a simple
                                                                 proportional control or one with PID may be required.
                                                                 Processes with long time lags and large maximum rate
                                                                 of rise (e.g., a heat exchanger), require wide
                                                                 proportional bands to eliminate oscillation. The wide
                                                                 band can result in large offsets with changes in the
                                                                 load. To eliminate these offsets, automatic reset
                                                                 (integral) can be used. Derivative (rate) action can be
The CN2010 controller features ramp and soak, the ability        used on processes with long time delays, to speed
to control temperature over time.                                recovery after a process disturbance.

                                                            Z-111
There are also other features to consider when                 process temperature back to setpoint,
selecting a controller. These include auto- or self-
tuning, where the instrument will automatically calculate      The rate or derivative function provides the controller
the proper proportional band, rate and reset values for        with the ability to shift the proportional band, to
precise control; serial communications, where the unit         compensate for rapidly changing temperature. The
can “talk” to a host computer for data storage, analysis,      amount of shift is proportional to the rate of temperature
and tuning; alarms, that can be latching (manual reset)        change.
or non-latching (automatic reset), set to trigger on high      A PID, or three-mode controller, combines the
or low process temperatures or if a deviation from             proportional, integral (reset) and derivative (rate)
setpoint is observed; timers/event indicators which can        actions, and is usually required to control difficult
mark elapsed time or the end/beginning of an event. In         processes. These controllers can also be made with
addition, relay or triac output units can be used with         two proportional outputs, one for heating and another
external switches, such as SSR solid state relays or
magnetic contactors, in order to switch large loads up to
                                                               for cooling. This type of controller is required for            Z
                                                               processes which may require heat to start up, but then
75 A.                                                          generate excess heat at some time during operation.
PID                                                            What are the Different Output Types That Are Available
The third controller type provides proportional with           for Controllers?
integral and derivative control, or PID. This controller
combines proportional control with two additional
adjustments, which helps the unit automatically                The output from the controller may take one of several
compensate for changes in the system. These                    forms. The most common forms are time proportional
adjustments, integral and derivative, are expressed in         and analog proportional. A time proportional output
                                                               applies power to the load for a percentage of a fixed
                                                               cycle time. For example, with a 10 second cycle time, if
                                                               the controller output were set for 60%, the relay would
                                                   Offset      be energized (closed, power applied) for 6 seconds,
 PB SP
                                                               and de-energized (open, no power applied) for 4
 Temp.




                                                               seconds. Time proportional outputs are available in
                                                               three different forms: electromechanical relay, triac or
                                                               ac solid state relay, or a dc voltage pulse (to drive an
                                                               external solid state relay). The electromechanical relay
                                  Time                         is generally the most economical type, and is usually
                                                               chosen on systems with cycle times greater than 10
              Process with Temperature Offset                  seconds, and relatively small loads.
time-based units; they are also referred to by their           An ac solid state relay or dc voltage pulse are chosen
reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively.                     for reliability, since they contain no moving parts.
                                                               Recommended for processes requiring short cycle
The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be        times, they need an additional relay, external to the
individually adjusted or “tuned” to a particular system,       controller, to handle the typical load required by a
using a “trial and error” method. It provides the most         heating element. These external solid state relays are
accurate and stable control of the three controller types,     usually used with an ac control signal for ac solid state
and is best used in systems which have a relatively            relay output controllers, or with a dc control signal for dc
small mass, those which react quickly to changes in            voltage pulse output controllers.
energy added to the process. It is recommended in
systems where the load changes often, and the                  An analog proportional output is usually an analog
controller is expected to compensate automatically due         voltage (0 to 5 Vdc) or current (4 to 20 mA). The output
to frequent changes in setpoint, the amount of energy          level from this output type is also set by the controller; if
available, or the mass to be controlled.                       the output were set at 60%, the output level would be
                                                               60% of 5 V, or 3 V. With a 4 to 20 mA output (a 16 mA
What Do Rate and Reset Do, and How Do They Work?               span), 60% is equal to (0.6 x 16) + 4, or 13.6 mA.
Rate and reset are methods used by controllers to              These controllers are usually used with proportioning
compensate for offsets and shifts in temperature. When         valves or power controllers.
using a proportional controller, it is very rare that the      What Should I Consider When Selecting a Controller for
heat input to maintain the setpoint temperature will be        My Application?
50%; the temperature will either increase or decrease
from the setpoint, until a stable temperature is obtained.     When you choose a controller, the main considerations
The difference between this stable temperature and the         include the precision of control that is necessary, and
setpoint is called offset. This offset can be                  how difficult the process is to control. For easiest tuning
compensated for manually or automatically. Using               and lowest initial cost, the simplest controller which will
manual reset, the user will shift the proportional band so     produce the desired results should be selected.
that the process will stabilize at the setpoint
temperature. Automatic reset, also known as integral,          Simple processes with a well matched heater (not over-
will integrate the deviation signal with respect to time,      or undersized) and without rapid cycling can possibly
and the integral is summed with the deviation signal to        use on-off controllers. For those systems subject to
shift the proportional band. The output power is thus          cycling, or with an unmatched heater (either over- or
automatically increased or decreased to bring the              undersized), a proportional controller is needed.
                                                                                                                     ®




                                                       Z-112
Temperature Controllers
Selection Considerations
CONTROLLABILITY OF                           CONTROL ALGORITHM (MODE)                       output is turned on and off in the ratio of
ELECTRIC HEAT                                This refers to the method in which the         the measurement difference from the
The basic function of a controller is to     controller attempts to restore system          setpoint. At the setpoint (the midpoint of
compare the actual temperature with its      temperature to the desired level. The two      the proportional band), the output on/off
setpoint and produce an output that will     most common methods are two-position           ratio is 1:1, that is, the on-time and off-
maintain the setpoint.                       (on-off) and proportioning (throttling)        time are equal. If the temperature is
The controller is one part of the entire     controls.                                      further from the setpoint, the on- and off-
control system, and the whole system         ON/OFF CONTROL                                 times vary in proportion to the
should be analyzed in selecting the          On/off control has the simplest of control     temperature difference. If the
proper controller. The following items       modes. It has a deadband (differential)        temperature is below setpoint, the output
should be considered when selecting a        expressed as a percentage of the input         will be on longer. If the temperature is too
controller.                                  span. The setpoint is usually in the           high, the output will be off longer.
1. Type of input sensor (thermocouple,       center of the deadband. Therefore, if the
   RTD, card, and temperature range)         input is 0 to 1000°F, the deadband is 1%
                                             and the setpoint is set at 500°F, the
2. Placement of sensor                       output will be full on when the
3. Control algorithm needed (on/off,         temperature is 495°F or below and will
   proportional, PID, autotune PID)          stay full on until the temperature reaches            Above
                                                                                                   Temp.
4. Type of output hardware required          505°F, at which time the output will be
   (electromechanical relay, SSR, analog     full off. It will stay full off until the
   output signal)                            temperature drops to 495°F.
                                                                                                                  On          Off
5. Additional outputs or requirements of     If the process has a fast rate of                                   Time        Time
   system (display required of               response, the cycling between 495 and                   At
                                             505°F will be fast. The faster the rate of           Setpoint
   temperature and/or setpoint, cooling                                                            Temp.
   outputs, alarms, limit, computer          response of the process, the greater the
   communication, etc.)                      overshoot and undershoot and the faster
                                             the cycling of the contactor when used as
TYPE OF INPUT                                a final control element.                              Below
The type of input sensor will depend on                                                            Temp.
the temperature range required, the          On/off control is usually used where a
resolution and accuracy of the               precise control is not necessary, for
measurement required, and how and            example, in systems that cannot handle
                                             having the energy turned on and off            Figure 1: Proportional control
where the sensor is to be mounted.
                                             frequently, where the mass of the system
PLACEMENT OF THE SENSOR                      is so great that the temperature changes
The correct placement of the sensing                                                        The proportional band is usually
                                             extremely slowly, or for a temperature         expressed as a percentage of full input
element with respect to the work and         alarm.
heat source is of the utmost importance                                                     range scale, or in degrees. It may also be
for good control. If all three can be        One special type of on/off control used        referred to as gain, which is the
located in close proximity, a high degree    for alarm is a limit controller. This          reciprocal of the band. In many units, the
of accuracy, up to the limit of the          controller uses a latching relay, which        cycle time and/or proportional bandwidth
controller, is relatively easy to achieve.   must be manually reset, and is used to         are adjustable, so that the controller can
However, if the heat source is located       shut down a process when a certain             be better matched to a particular
some distance from the work, widely          temperature is reached.                        process.
different accuracies can be obtained just    PROPORTIONAL                                   Proportional controllers have a manual
by locating the sensing element at           Proportional controls are designed to          reset (trim) adjustment, which can be
various places between the heater and        eliminate the cycling associated with          used to adjust for an offset between the
the work.                                    on/off control. A proportional controller      steady state temperature and the
Before selecting the location for the        decreases the average power being              setpoint.
sensing element, determine whether the       supplied to the heater as the temperature      In addition to electromechanical and solid
heat demand will be predominantly            approaches setpoint. This has the effect       state relay outputs, proportional
steady or variable. If the heat demand is    of slowing down the heater so that it will     controllers are also available with
relatively steady, placement of the          not overshoot the setpoint, but will           proportional analog signal outputs, such
sensing element near the heat source         approach the setpoint and maintain a           as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to 5 Vdc. With these
will hold the temperature change at the      stable temperature. This proportioning         outputs, the actual output level amplitude
work to a minimum.                           action can be accomplished by turning          is varied, rather than the proportion of on
                                             the output on and off for short intervals.     and off times.
On the other hand, placing the sensing       This “time proportioning” varies the ratio
element near the work, when heat             of “on” time to “off” time to control the      PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL
demand is variable, will enable it to more   temperature.                                   PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL MODE
quickly sense a change in heat                                                              (PID):
requirements. However, because of the        The time period between two successive         This controller operates the same way a
increase in thermal lag between the          turn-ons is known as the “cycle time” or       proportional controller does, except that
heater and the sensing elements, more        “duty cycle.” The proportioning action         the function of the trim adjustment is
overshoot and undershoot can occur,          occurs within a “proportional band”            performed automatically by the integral
causing a greater spread between             around the setpoint temperature. Outside       function (automatic reset). Thus, load
maximum and minimum temperature.             this band, the controller functions as an      changes are compensated for
This spread can be reduced by selecting      on/off unit, with the output either fully on   automatically and the temperature
a PID controller.                            (below the band) or fully off (above the       agrees with the setpoint under all
                                             band). However, within the band, the           operating conditions. Offset is eliminated.

                                                               Z-113
Temperature Controllers
Selection Considerations
                                                terms must be “tuned,” i.e., adjusted to a     The types of hardware available, external
                                                particular process. This is done by trial      to the controller, to allow it to handle the
                                                and error. Some controllers called             load, are as follows:
                                                Autotune controllers attempt to adjust the     1) Mechanical Contactor
                     Low Rate                   PID parameters automatically.                  2) ac controlled solid state relay
                      Setting
                                                TYPE OF CONTROL OUTPUT                         3) dc controlled solid state relay
                                                HARDWARE                                       4) Zero crossover SCR power controller
                                                The output hardware in a temperature           5) Phase angle fired SCR power controller      Z
 Set                                            controller may take one of several forms.      Mechanical contactors are external
Point                                           Deciding on the type of control hardware       relays, which can be used when a higher
                 Rate Set                       to be used depends on the heater used          amperage than can be handled by the
                 Properly                       and power available, the control               relay in the controller is required, or for
                                                algorithm chosen, and the hardware             some three-phase systems. They are not
                                                external to the controller available to        recommended for cycle times shorter
                                                handle the heater load. The most               than 15 seconds.
                                                commonly used controller output                Solid state relays have the advantage
                                                hardware is as follows:                        over mechanical contactors, in that they
                                                Time Proportional or On/Off                    have no moving parts, and thus can be
Figure 2: Rate function compensates for rapid         1) Mechanical Relay                      used with short cycle times. The shorter
changes.                                              2) Triac (ac solid state relay)          the cycle time, the less dead lag and the
                                                      3) dc Solid State Relay Driver (pulse)   better the control. The “switching” takes
The derivative function (rate action)           Analog Proportional                            place at the zero voltage crossover point
compensates for load changes which                   1) 4-20 mA dc                             of the alternating current cycle; thus, no
take place rapidly. An example is a                  2) 0-5 Vdc or 0-10 Vdc                    appreciable electrical noise is generated.
traveling belt oven where the product is                                                       An ac controlled solid state relay is used
fed intermittently. When the product            A time proportional output applies power       with either a mechanical relay or triac
enters the oven, there is a sharp rise in       to the load for a percentage of a fixed        output from the controller, and is
the demand for heat, and when it stops,         cycle time. For example, with a 10             available for currents up to 90 amps at
there is an excess of heat. Derivative          second cycle time, if the controller output    voltages of up to 480 Vac. DC solid state
action reduces the undershoot and               were set for 60%, the relay would be           relays are used with dc solid state driver
overshoot of temperature under these            energized (closed, power applied) for 6        (pulse) outputs. The “turn on” signal can
conditions and prevents bad product due         seconds, and de-energized (open, no            be from 3 to 32 Vdc and models are
                                                power applied) for 4 seconds.                  available to control up to 90 amps at up
                                                The electromechanical relay is generally       to 480 Vac.
                                                the most economical output type, and is        Zero crossover SCR power controllers
                                                usually chosen on systems with cycle           are used to control single or three-phase
                                                times greater than 10 seconds and              power for even larger loads. They can be
                                                relatively small loads.                        used for currents up to 200 amps at
                                                Choose an ac solid state relay or dc           480 volts. A 4-20 mA dc control signal is
          Set                                   voltage pulse to drive an external SSR         usually required from the controller. The
         Point
                                                with reliability, since they contain no        zero crossover SCR power controllers
                                                moving parts. They are also                    convert the analog output signal to a time
                                                recommended for processes requiring            proportional signal with a cycle time of
                                  Offset        short cycle times. External solid state        about two seconds or less, and also
                                                relays may require an ac or dc control         provide switching at the zero crossover
                                                signal.                                        point to avoid generating electrical noise.
                                                An amplitude proportional output is            Phase angle SCR power controllers also
                                                usually an analog voltage (0 to 5 Vdc) or      are operated by a 4-20 mA dc controller
                                                current (4 to 20 mA). The output level         output. Power to the load is controlled by
                                                from this output type is also set by the       governing the point of turn on (firing) of
                                                controller. If the output were set at 60%,     each half cycle of a full ac sine wave.
Figure 3: Reset function eliminates offset.
                                                the output level would be 60% of 5 V, or       This has the effect of varying the voltage
to over or under curing.                        3 V. With a 4 to 20 mA output (a 16 mA         within a single 0.0167 second period. By
                                                span), 60% is equal to (0.6 x 16) + 4, or      comparison, time proportional controllers
PID control provides more accurate and          13.6 mA. These controllers are usually         vary the average power over the cycle
stable control than on/off or proportional      used with SCR power controllers or             time, usually more than 1 second, and
controller types. It is best used in            proportioning valves.                          often more than 15 seconds. Phase
systems that have a relatively small                                                           angle SCR’s are only recommended for
mass and which react quickly to changes         The power used by an electrical
                                                resistance heater will usually be given in     low mass heating elements such as
in energy added to the process. It is                                                          infrared lamps or hot wire heaters.
recommended in systems where the load           watts. The capacity of a relay is given in
changes often. The controller is expected       amps. A common formula to determine
to automatically compensate the amount          the safe relay rating requirements is:
of energy available or the mass to be           W = V(A)(1.5) or A = W/(V)(1.5)
controlled, due to frequent changes in          Where A = relay rating in amps
setpoint.                                       W = heater capacity in watts
The proportional, integral and derivative       V = voltage used
                                                1.5 = safety factor

                                                                  Z-114
One Omega Drive | Stamford, CT 06907 | 1-888-TC-OMEGA (1-888-826-6342) |                          info@omega.com

www.omega.com
                                UNITED KINGDOM
                                 www. omega.co.uk
                                Manchester, England
                                  0800-488-488

  UNITED STATES                      FRANCE
   www.omega.com                   www.omega.fr
  1-800-TC-OMEGA                 Guyancourt, France
    Stamford, CT.                   088-466-342

      CANADA                    CZECH REPUBLIC
    www.omega.ca                www.omegaeng.cz
   Laval(Quebec)              Karviná, Czech Republic
  1-800-TC-OMEGA                    596-311-899

     GERMANY                         BENELUX
    www.omega.de                    www.omega.nl
Deckenpfronn, Germany              Amstelveen, NL
    0800-8266342                   0800-099-33-44



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2

  • 1. Introduction To Temperature Controllers On/Off An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. The output from the device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will switch the output only when the temperature crosses the setpoint. For heating control, the output is on when the temperature is below the setpoint, and off above setpoint. Z Since the temperature crosses the setpoint to change the output state, the process temperature will be cycling continually, going from below setpoint to above, and back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to prevent damage to contactors and valves, an on- off differential, or “hysteresis,“ is added to the controller operations. This differential requires that the temperature exceed setpoint by a certain amount before the output will turn off or on again. On-off differential prevents the output from “chattering” (that is, engaging in fast, continual switching if the temperature’s cycling above and below the setpoint occurs very rapidly). On-off control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary, in systems which cannot handle the energy’s being turned on and off frequently, where the The Miniature CN77000 is a full featured mass of the system is so great that temperatures microprocessor-based controller in a 1/16 DIN change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm. package. One special type of on-off control used for alarm is a How Can I Control My Process Temperature Accurately limit controller. This controller uses a latching relay, and Reliably? which must be manually reset, and is used to shut down a process when a certain temperature is reached. To accurately control process temperature without extensive operator involvement, a temperature control system relies upon a controller, which accepts a temperature sensor such as a thermocouple or RTD as ON ON ON ON input. It compares the actual temperature to the desired control temperature, or setpoint, and provides an output Heater to a control element. OFF OFF OFF OFF The controller is one part of the entire control system, Temperature and the whole system should be analyzed in selecting the proper controller. The following items should be considered when selecting a controller: 1. Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and temperature range 2. Type of output required (electromechanical relay, SSR, analog output) 3 Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional, PID) 4 Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm, Setpoint limit) On-Off What Are the Different Types of Controllers, and How Differential Do They Work? (Deadband) There are three basic types of controllers: on-off, Time proportional and PID. Depending upon the system to be controlled, the operator will be able to use one type or ON/Off Temperature Control Action another to control the process. Z-110
  • 2. Introduction To Temperature Controllers Cont’d Proportional temperature difference. If the temperature is below setpoint, the output will be on longer; if the temperature Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the is too high, the output will be off longer. cycling associated with on-off control. A proportional controller decreases the average power being supplied The proportional band is usually expressed as a to the heater as the temperature approaches setpoint. percent of full scale, or degrees. It may also be referred This has the effect of slowing down the heater, so that it to as gain, which is the reciprocal of the band. Note, will not overshoot the setpoint but will approach the that in time proportioning control, full power is applied to setpoint and maintain a stable temperature. This the heater, but is cycled on and off, so the average time proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the is varied. In most units, the cycle time and/or output on and off for short intervals. This “time proportional band are adjustable, so that the controller proportioning “ varies the ratio of ‘on’ time to ‘off‘ time to may better match a particular process. control the temperature. The proportioning action occurs within a “proportional band” around the setpoint In addition to electromechanical and solid state relay temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions outputs, proportional controllers are also available with as an on-off unit, with the output either fully on (below proportional analog outputs, such as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to the band) or fully off (above the band). However, within 5 Vdc. With these outputs, the actual output level is the band, the output is turned on and off in the ratio of varied, rather than the on and off times, as with a relay the measurement difference from the setpoint. At the output controller. setpoint (the midpoint of the proportional band), the One of the advantages of proportional control is output on:off ratio is 1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time simplicity of operation. It may require an operator to are equal. If the temperature is further from the setpoint, make a small adjustment (manual reset) to bring the the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the temperature to setpoint on initial startup, or if the process conditions change significantly. 15 Sec. On 5 Off Time Proportional 4-20 mA Proportional Percent On Time Off Time Temp Output Percent On Seconds Seconds (ºF) Level Output Repetitive 0.0 0.0 20.0 over 540 4 mA 0.0 20 sec. Cycle 0.0 0.0 20.0 540.0 4 mA 0.0 Time 12.5 2.5 17.5 530.0 6 mA 12.5 25.0 5.0 15.0 520.0 8 mA 25.0 Time Proportioning at 75% Output Level 37.5 7.5 12.5 510.0 10 mA 37.5 50.0 10.0 10.0 500.0 12 mA 50.0 62.5 12.5 7.5 490.0 14 mA 62.5 75.0 15.0 5.0 480.0 16 mA 75.0 87.5 17.5 2.5 470.0 18 mA 87.5 100.0 20.0 0.0 460.0 20 mA 100.0 100.0 20.0 0.0 under 460 20 mA 100.0 Proportional Bandwith Example: heating Setpoint: 500˚F Proportional Band: 80˚F (±40˚F) Systems that are subject to wide temperature cycling will also need proportional controllers. Depending upon the process and the precision required, either a simple proportional control or one with PID may be required. Processes with long time lags and large maximum rate of rise (e.g., a heat exchanger), require wide proportional bands to eliminate oscillation. The wide band can result in large offsets with changes in the load. To eliminate these offsets, automatic reset (integral) can be used. Derivative (rate) action can be The CN2010 controller features ramp and soak, the ability used on processes with long time delays, to speed to control temperature over time. recovery after a process disturbance. Z-111
  • 3. There are also other features to consider when process temperature back to setpoint, selecting a controller. These include auto- or self- tuning, where the instrument will automatically calculate The rate or derivative function provides the controller the proper proportional band, rate and reset values for with the ability to shift the proportional band, to precise control; serial communications, where the unit compensate for rapidly changing temperature. The can “talk” to a host computer for data storage, analysis, amount of shift is proportional to the rate of temperature and tuning; alarms, that can be latching (manual reset) change. or non-latching (automatic reset), set to trigger on high A PID, or three-mode controller, combines the or low process temperatures or if a deviation from proportional, integral (reset) and derivative (rate) setpoint is observed; timers/event indicators which can actions, and is usually required to control difficult mark elapsed time or the end/beginning of an event. In processes. These controllers can also be made with addition, relay or triac output units can be used with two proportional outputs, one for heating and another external switches, such as SSR solid state relays or magnetic contactors, in order to switch large loads up to for cooling. This type of controller is required for Z processes which may require heat to start up, but then 75 A. generate excess heat at some time during operation. PID What are the Different Output Types That Are Available The third controller type provides proportional with for Controllers? integral and derivative control, or PID. This controller combines proportional control with two additional adjustments, which helps the unit automatically The output from the controller may take one of several compensate for changes in the system. These forms. The most common forms are time proportional adjustments, integral and derivative, are expressed in and analog proportional. A time proportional output applies power to the load for a percentage of a fixed cycle time. For example, with a 10 second cycle time, if the controller output were set for 60%, the relay would Offset be energized (closed, power applied) for 6 seconds, PB SP and de-energized (open, no power applied) for 4 Temp. seconds. Time proportional outputs are available in three different forms: electromechanical relay, triac or ac solid state relay, or a dc voltage pulse (to drive an external solid state relay). The electromechanical relay Time is generally the most economical type, and is usually chosen on systems with cycle times greater than 10 Process with Temperature Offset seconds, and relatively small loads. time-based units; they are also referred to by their An ac solid state relay or dc voltage pulse are chosen reciprocals, RESET and RATE, respectively. for reliability, since they contain no moving parts. Recommended for processes requiring short cycle The proportional, integral and derivative terms must be times, they need an additional relay, external to the individually adjusted or “tuned” to a particular system, controller, to handle the typical load required by a using a “trial and error” method. It provides the most heating element. These external solid state relays are accurate and stable control of the three controller types, usually used with an ac control signal for ac solid state and is best used in systems which have a relatively relay output controllers, or with a dc control signal for dc small mass, those which react quickly to changes in voltage pulse output controllers. energy added to the process. It is recommended in systems where the load changes often, and the An analog proportional output is usually an analog controller is expected to compensate automatically due voltage (0 to 5 Vdc) or current (4 to 20 mA). The output to frequent changes in setpoint, the amount of energy level from this output type is also set by the controller; if available, or the mass to be controlled. the output were set at 60%, the output level would be 60% of 5 V, or 3 V. With a 4 to 20 mA output (a 16 mA What Do Rate and Reset Do, and How Do They Work? span), 60% is equal to (0.6 x 16) + 4, or 13.6 mA. Rate and reset are methods used by controllers to These controllers are usually used with proportioning compensate for offsets and shifts in temperature. When valves or power controllers. using a proportional controller, it is very rare that the What Should I Consider When Selecting a Controller for heat input to maintain the setpoint temperature will be My Application? 50%; the temperature will either increase or decrease from the setpoint, until a stable temperature is obtained. When you choose a controller, the main considerations The difference between this stable temperature and the include the precision of control that is necessary, and setpoint is called offset. This offset can be how difficult the process is to control. For easiest tuning compensated for manually or automatically. Using and lowest initial cost, the simplest controller which will manual reset, the user will shift the proportional band so produce the desired results should be selected. that the process will stabilize at the setpoint temperature. Automatic reset, also known as integral, Simple processes with a well matched heater (not over- will integrate the deviation signal with respect to time, or undersized) and without rapid cycling can possibly and the integral is summed with the deviation signal to use on-off controllers. For those systems subject to shift the proportional band. The output power is thus cycling, or with an unmatched heater (either over- or automatically increased or decreased to bring the undersized), a proportional controller is needed. ® Z-112
  • 4. Temperature Controllers Selection Considerations CONTROLLABILITY OF CONTROL ALGORITHM (MODE) output is turned on and off in the ratio of ELECTRIC HEAT This refers to the method in which the the measurement difference from the The basic function of a controller is to controller attempts to restore system setpoint. At the setpoint (the midpoint of compare the actual temperature with its temperature to the desired level. The two the proportional band), the output on/off setpoint and produce an output that will most common methods are two-position ratio is 1:1, that is, the on-time and off- maintain the setpoint. (on-off) and proportioning (throttling) time are equal. If the temperature is The controller is one part of the entire controls. further from the setpoint, the on- and off- control system, and the whole system ON/OFF CONTROL times vary in proportion to the should be analyzed in selecting the On/off control has the simplest of control temperature difference. If the proper controller. The following items modes. It has a deadband (differential) temperature is below setpoint, the output should be considered when selecting a expressed as a percentage of the input will be on longer. If the temperature is too controller. span. The setpoint is usually in the high, the output will be off longer. 1. Type of input sensor (thermocouple, center of the deadband. Therefore, if the RTD, card, and temperature range) input is 0 to 1000°F, the deadband is 1% and the setpoint is set at 500°F, the 2. Placement of sensor output will be full on when the 3. Control algorithm needed (on/off, temperature is 495°F or below and will proportional, PID, autotune PID) stay full on until the temperature reaches Above Temp. 4. Type of output hardware required 505°F, at which time the output will be (electromechanical relay, SSR, analog full off. It will stay full off until the output signal) temperature drops to 495°F. On Off 5. Additional outputs or requirements of If the process has a fast rate of Time Time system (display required of response, the cycling between 495 and At 505°F will be fast. The faster the rate of Setpoint temperature and/or setpoint, cooling Temp. outputs, alarms, limit, computer response of the process, the greater the communication, etc.) overshoot and undershoot and the faster the cycling of the contactor when used as TYPE OF INPUT a final control element. Below The type of input sensor will depend on Temp. the temperature range required, the On/off control is usually used where a resolution and accuracy of the precise control is not necessary, for measurement required, and how and example, in systems that cannot handle having the energy turned on and off Figure 1: Proportional control where the sensor is to be mounted. frequently, where the mass of the system PLACEMENT OF THE SENSOR is so great that the temperature changes The correct placement of the sensing The proportional band is usually extremely slowly, or for a temperature expressed as a percentage of full input element with respect to the work and alarm. heat source is of the utmost importance range scale, or in degrees. It may also be for good control. If all three can be One special type of on/off control used referred to as gain, which is the located in close proximity, a high degree for alarm is a limit controller. This reciprocal of the band. In many units, the of accuracy, up to the limit of the controller uses a latching relay, which cycle time and/or proportional bandwidth controller, is relatively easy to achieve. must be manually reset, and is used to are adjustable, so that the controller can However, if the heat source is located shut down a process when a certain be better matched to a particular some distance from the work, widely temperature is reached. process. different accuracies can be obtained just PROPORTIONAL Proportional controllers have a manual by locating the sensing element at Proportional controls are designed to reset (trim) adjustment, which can be various places between the heater and eliminate the cycling associated with used to adjust for an offset between the the work. on/off control. A proportional controller steady state temperature and the Before selecting the location for the decreases the average power being setpoint. sensing element, determine whether the supplied to the heater as the temperature In addition to electromechanical and solid heat demand will be predominantly approaches setpoint. This has the effect state relay outputs, proportional steady or variable. If the heat demand is of slowing down the heater so that it will controllers are also available with relatively steady, placement of the not overshoot the setpoint, but will proportional analog signal outputs, such sensing element near the heat source approach the setpoint and maintain a as 4 to 20 mA or 0 to 5 Vdc. With these will hold the temperature change at the stable temperature. This proportioning outputs, the actual output level amplitude work to a minimum. action can be accomplished by turning is varied, rather than the proportion of on the output on and off for short intervals. and off times. On the other hand, placing the sensing This “time proportioning” varies the ratio element near the work, when heat of “on” time to “off” time to control the PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL demand is variable, will enable it to more temperature. PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL MODE quickly sense a change in heat (PID): requirements. However, because of the The time period between two successive This controller operates the same way a increase in thermal lag between the turn-ons is known as the “cycle time” or proportional controller does, except that heater and the sensing elements, more “duty cycle.” The proportioning action the function of the trim adjustment is overshoot and undershoot can occur, occurs within a “proportional band” performed automatically by the integral causing a greater spread between around the setpoint temperature. Outside function (automatic reset). Thus, load maximum and minimum temperature. this band, the controller functions as an changes are compensated for This spread can be reduced by selecting on/off unit, with the output either fully on automatically and the temperature a PID controller. (below the band) or fully off (above the agrees with the setpoint under all band). However, within the band, the operating conditions. Offset is eliminated. Z-113
  • 5. Temperature Controllers Selection Considerations terms must be “tuned,” i.e., adjusted to a The types of hardware available, external particular process. This is done by trial to the controller, to allow it to handle the and error. Some controllers called load, are as follows: Autotune controllers attempt to adjust the 1) Mechanical Contactor Low Rate PID parameters automatically. 2) ac controlled solid state relay Setting TYPE OF CONTROL OUTPUT 3) dc controlled solid state relay HARDWARE 4) Zero crossover SCR power controller The output hardware in a temperature 5) Phase angle fired SCR power controller Z Set controller may take one of several forms. Mechanical contactors are external Point Deciding on the type of control hardware relays, which can be used when a higher Rate Set to be used depends on the heater used amperage than can be handled by the Properly and power available, the control relay in the controller is required, or for algorithm chosen, and the hardware some three-phase systems. They are not external to the controller available to recommended for cycle times shorter handle the heater load. The most than 15 seconds. commonly used controller output Solid state relays have the advantage hardware is as follows: over mechanical contactors, in that they Time Proportional or On/Off have no moving parts, and thus can be Figure 2: Rate function compensates for rapid 1) Mechanical Relay used with short cycle times. The shorter changes. 2) Triac (ac solid state relay) the cycle time, the less dead lag and the 3) dc Solid State Relay Driver (pulse) better the control. The “switching” takes The derivative function (rate action) Analog Proportional place at the zero voltage crossover point compensates for load changes which 1) 4-20 mA dc of the alternating current cycle; thus, no take place rapidly. An example is a 2) 0-5 Vdc or 0-10 Vdc appreciable electrical noise is generated. traveling belt oven where the product is An ac controlled solid state relay is used fed intermittently. When the product A time proportional output applies power with either a mechanical relay or triac enters the oven, there is a sharp rise in to the load for a percentage of a fixed output from the controller, and is the demand for heat, and when it stops, cycle time. For example, with a 10 available for currents up to 90 amps at there is an excess of heat. Derivative second cycle time, if the controller output voltages of up to 480 Vac. DC solid state action reduces the undershoot and were set for 60%, the relay would be relays are used with dc solid state driver overshoot of temperature under these energized (closed, power applied) for 6 (pulse) outputs. The “turn on” signal can conditions and prevents bad product due seconds, and de-energized (open, no be from 3 to 32 Vdc and models are power applied) for 4 seconds. available to control up to 90 amps at up The electromechanical relay is generally to 480 Vac. the most economical output type, and is Zero crossover SCR power controllers usually chosen on systems with cycle are used to control single or three-phase times greater than 10 seconds and power for even larger loads. They can be relatively small loads. used for currents up to 200 amps at Choose an ac solid state relay or dc 480 volts. A 4-20 mA dc control signal is Set voltage pulse to drive an external SSR usually required from the controller. The Point with reliability, since they contain no zero crossover SCR power controllers moving parts. They are also convert the analog output signal to a time recommended for processes requiring proportional signal with a cycle time of Offset short cycle times. External solid state about two seconds or less, and also relays may require an ac or dc control provide switching at the zero crossover signal. point to avoid generating electrical noise. An amplitude proportional output is Phase angle SCR power controllers also usually an analog voltage (0 to 5 Vdc) or are operated by a 4-20 mA dc controller current (4 to 20 mA). The output level output. Power to the load is controlled by from this output type is also set by the governing the point of turn on (firing) of controller. If the output were set at 60%, each half cycle of a full ac sine wave. Figure 3: Reset function eliminates offset. the output level would be 60% of 5 V, or This has the effect of varying the voltage to over or under curing. 3 V. With a 4 to 20 mA output (a 16 mA within a single 0.0167 second period. By span), 60% is equal to (0.6 x 16) + 4, or comparison, time proportional controllers PID control provides more accurate and 13.6 mA. These controllers are usually vary the average power over the cycle stable control than on/off or proportional used with SCR power controllers or time, usually more than 1 second, and controller types. It is best used in proportioning valves. often more than 15 seconds. Phase systems that have a relatively small angle SCR’s are only recommended for mass and which react quickly to changes The power used by an electrical resistance heater will usually be given in low mass heating elements such as in energy added to the process. It is infrared lamps or hot wire heaters. recommended in systems where the load watts. The capacity of a relay is given in changes often. The controller is expected amps. A common formula to determine to automatically compensate the amount the safe relay rating requirements is: of energy available or the mass to be W = V(A)(1.5) or A = W/(V)(1.5) controlled, due to frequent changes in Where A = relay rating in amps setpoint. W = heater capacity in watts The proportional, integral and derivative V = voltage used 1.5 = safety factor Z-114
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