1. 1
Near East & North Africa Land and Water Days, Amman, 15-18 December 2013
Connecting transboundary waterresources managementwith national visions
and plans in Lebanon
By
S.Sarraf
1-Introduction
Lebanon and the Near East Region in general, are characterized by increased demand for water
to feed the rising population, low irrigation system performance, water quality deterioration, and
potential uncertainties resulting from changes in macro-economic policies as well as unsettled
problems of shared transboundary water resources. Many international rivers are prospective risk
points for disputes. The fact that groundwater resources are also shared by different countries, and
that the information base of these aquifers is weak, add another dimension of difficulty.
Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses
(UNWC)
International law offers little concrete help in resolving water conflicts since no legal framework
governs the allocation and use of international waters. The International Law Association (ILA)
and the United Nations International Law Commission (ILC) have put forward a number of
principles, including four obligations: (1) to inform and consult with water-sharing neighbors
before taking actions that may affect them, (2) to exchange hydrologic data regularly, (3) to
avoid causing substantial harm to other water users, and (4) to allocate water reasonably and
equitably. In reality these principles are open to widely differing interpretations whether
countries are located upstream or downstream the water-course.
On 21 May 1997, the UN General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the first global treaty
regulating the building of dams and the management of rivers that flow across borders, known as
“Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (UNWC)”.
The vote was 103 in favor, three against (Burundi, China and Turkey) and 27 abstentions. Syria
and Jordan voted favorably, Lebanon was absent at that session. The convention is to come into
force when ratified by 35 countries, but will not bind states that do not accept it. As of 24
September 2013, there were only 31 countries that had ratified the treaty, among them Syria on
2 April 1998, Lebanon on 25 May 1999 and Jordan on 22 June 1999. (Status of the watercourse
convention, Internationalwaterlaw.org). Even though the Convention did not enter into force
after 16 years of its adoption, it is currently considered as a major framework that can be used,
and is used, by countries sharing international basins.
Situation in Lebanon
Three rivers are considered as international, two of them are shared with Syria, al Kebir and al Assi
Rivers (Orontes) and one, the Hasbani River, is shared with Israel.
Negotiations between Lebanon and Syria over the waters of the Orontes and al-Kabir Rivers
have produced two agreements, both based on principles drawn from the UNWC. These
agreements offer incentives for mutual gain, based on the joint construction of two dams,

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reflecting the interests of both countries in regulating water flows and increasing storage capacity
(ESCWA, 2009).The Hasbani River is not regulated by any agreement due to the prevailing
political situation between Lebanon and Israel.
The Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW) launched a workplan in 1999 (known as the 10 year
Plan) and a national water sector strategy was presented and adopted by the Government in
2012.The main issues included, among others, the construction of dams to ensure additional
water sources, the rehabilitation of the potable and irrigation network as well as the installation
of new ones to satisfy the needs of the population and the treatment of wastewater to halt the
pollution of underground and surface water in Lebanon.
A- NAHR AL KABIR
General Features
Nahr al Kabir is a shared river that forms the border between Lebanon and Syria, its basin covers
954 km
2
, of which 244 km
2
or 26% lie in Lebanon and 710 km
2
or 74% lie in Syria. As a coastal
Mediterranean river, the Nahr al Kabir flows from east to west over an approximate distance of
52 km if the Ain Es-Safa Spring is considered the source, or 78 km if the Es-Safa tributary is
included. The mean annual flow volume is estimated at 377 MCM (1969-2011) and the flow
regime is typically Mediterranean with a high-flow season from November to May with a peak
flow in February and a low-flow season from June to October. Minimum flow is generally
reached in August/September. Groundwater significantly contributes to the river runoff. About
70 perennial springs ensure that the river’s main channel maintains a continuous flow, even
during the dry summer months. The basin has an estimated total population of 530,000 of which
100,000 lives in Lebanon.
Agreement on Nahr al Kabir
After an eight-year negotiation process, the agreement between Lebanon and Syria for the
sharing of al Kabir River (named Great Southern River al Kabir in Syria) was signed on
20/04/2002 in Beirut (Lebanon). The agreement draws on the UNWC, to which both countries
are signatories.
The agreement is centered on:
 Sharing the water of the river’s total annual yield between Lebanon and Syria on the
basis of 40 and 60% respectively.
 The joint construction of a multi-purpose dam at Noura al Tahta/Idlin with a planned
storage capacity of 70 MCM that will provide water mainly for the irrigation of 10,000
ha on both sides of the river, provide water for domestic and industrial use and at the
same time control flooding in the coastal plain. It is worth mentioning that the
preliminary studies were carried out by FAO in collaboration with the Lebanese
government between 1969 and 1972 within the framework of the FAO Hydro-
Agricultural Development Project for North Lebanon. The idea of the dam was old but
did not materialized until agreement was signed in 2002.
 Costs of dam construction and engineering studies are to be equally divided between both
countries.

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Cooperation
The Lebanese-Syrian Joint Committee for Shared Water is the central entity through which the
two countries cooperate over issues related to shared water resources. The membership of the
special joint committee for Nahr al Kabir is drawn from both countries. The committee
comprises two subcommittees. The Sub-Committee for the Control of Water Hyacinth was
created in 2009 with the aim of assessing and controlling the spread of this invasive plant. The
Sub-Committee for River Protection and Environmental Preservation is responsible for
coordinating and supervising issues related to river hydrology, river pollution and river
infringements. Members of the sub-committees usually hold monthly meetings in Lebanon or
Syria to exchange data, discuss issues related to the basin and specify joint measures in order to
tackle problems such as illegal acts and violations along the river course and river pollution.
According to Annex 3 of the agreement, the joint committee is to prepare an annual program for
water use in the basin.
After several meetings of the Joint Committee in 2009 and 2010, the Parties agreed to prepare a
call for tender for the study of the dam at Noura al Tahta/Idline location. This was done in
January 2011 and resulted in the selection of a Swiss-Lebanese Consortium. It was approved by
the two Governments which released funds in August 2011 allowing the feasibility study to be
launched. Subsequent events in Syria have delayed the study.
Both countries consider the agreement as a model for bilateral cooperation over shared water
resources in the Arab region.
National Vision and plans in Lebanon for Nahr al Kabir Basin
The Akkar region in Nahr al Kabir Basin remains one of the poorest Lebanese districts. Water in
the basin is mainly used for domestic purposes and for irrigation; to date, there are no dams in
the Lebanese part of the basin. There are two main irrigation schemes in the area with a total of
1,720 ha: the Bqaiaa Plain (990 ha) and the Machta Hassan/ Machta Hammoud/ Chadra lands
(730 ha). Construction of the planned Noura al Tahta-Idline Dam would support the irrigation of
another 4,959 ha in the Akkar Plain in Lebanon and higher surrounding zones, of which 3,500 ha
will be reclaimed agricultural lands.
The quality of both surface and groundwater in the Nahr al Kabir watershed is rapidly
deteriorating due to uncontrolled disposal of untreated domestic sewage, animal waste and solid
waste, and unsustainable agricultural practices. Other threats include recurrent floods and the
spread of water hyacinth along the whole river course. Therefore, environmental degradation is a
major issue in the basin and to date, joint government efforts to tackle water pollution, floods and
illegal activities in the watershed have only offered temporary solutions to recurrent problems.
The Government of Lebanon is determined to address these issues jointly with Syria when
implementing the signed agreement, since an overall joint plan for the integrated and sustainable
management of the basin’s natural resources is still lacking. Plans for the construction of new
wastewater treatment plants in the watershed are under preparation for the region of al
Bireh/Mounjez in Lebanon and Tartous Governorate in Syria. Both countries have solicited
international donors for assistance in water supply management and hydrological monitoring,
and various projects were launched. However, with the on-going crisis in Syria since March
2011, it is likely that some of these projects are currently on hold.

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The cooperation of the two countries on the basis of the 2002 water-sharing agreement, with
several joint technical sub-committees tackling various issues related to the watershed, is
certainly in line with the 10 year national plan prepared by the MEW for the development of the
water sector in Lebanon. It ensures:
 additional water resources.
 expand the irrigation network to satisfy the needs of the population (from 1,700 to almost
6,700 ha).
 address pollution issues.
 control of the recurrent flood of the surrounding areas.
B- NAHR AL-ASSI (ORONTES)
General Features
al Assi River (Orontes River) originates in Lebanon and flows through Syria and Turkey before
discharging into the Mediterranean Sea. Its basin area is estimated at 26,530 km2 (37,900 km2,
Comair) of which 2,016 km2 or 8% lie in Lebanon, 17,881 km2 or 67% in Syria and 6,633 km2
or 25% in Turkey. The river has a total length of 404 km, of which 38 km lie in Lebanon, 280
km in Syria, 27 km along the Syrian-Turkish border, and 59 km in Turkey.
The sources of the Orontes River are karstic springs that lie at an altitude of 690 m in the Bekaa
Valley in Lebanon. The mean annual flow volume for the period between 1931 and 2011 was
410 MCM at Hermel, Lebanon. The largest contributor to the river flow is the Ain Zarqa Spring
in Lebanon with a mean flow of 13.6 m3/s (ESCWA 2013).
The basin has an estimated total population of 5.86 millions of which 381,000 lives in Lebanon.
Agreement on the Orontes River
Negotiations between Lebanon and Syria on the Orontes River began since 1940. Only on
September 30, 1994, the two countries signed the "Agreement on the Distribution of the Orontes
River Water Originating in Lebanese Territory”. This agreement included a fixed amount of 80
MCM/year allocated to Lebanon if the river flow exceeds 400 MCM/year at the Hermel Bridge
gage and 20% of the annual flow if the discharge volume is less than 400 MCM/year. The 1994
agreement addressed the issue of groundwater withdrawals with a provision authorizing pumping
from wells drilled before the signature of the 1994 agreement, but prohibiting new wells.
The 1994 agreement had several weaknesses and was considered as not equitable to Lebanon.
One of the major weaknesses was the fact that more than one third of the water quantities
allocated to Lebanon are during the winter season, outside the irrigation period. In the absence of
dams or other regulatory infrastructure, this water cannot be used. Storage infrastructure, such as
diversion works and accumulation dams, is not mentioned, effectively preventing Lebanon from
using its share in spring and summer.
On January 11, 1997, an Addendum was made to the 1994 Agreement, but still included weak
points and the status quo in the basin prevailed until 1999, when heads of state decided to review
the 1994 agreement and its addendum. The situation was resolved when the Lebanese and Syrian
Presidents met in January of 2002 and a new agreement was approved by the Syrian and

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Lebanese parliaments in December 2002 and is referred to as the "Agreement of 2002". The
2002 Agreement is comprised of the 1994 Agreement, 1997 Addendum and the approved
Minutes of the Joint Lebanese-Syrian Meetings. This new agreement includes the construction of
a derivation dam of 27 MCM capacity that will serve the two sides of the river, and a
multipurpose accumulation dam of 37 MCM capacity.
The Government of Lebanon believes that the 2002 Agreement was equitable for both Lebanon
and Syria and we can say it is a win-win outcome. The Syrian-Lebanese agreement is seen as
complying with international law, however the only negative aspect is that Turkey was not
involved in the negotiations and this is explained by the fact that Syria and turkey have
controversial claims about that the Hatay/Antakieh region. It is interesting to note that through
negotiations and good will, the first non-equitable agreement was amended to become an
acceptable one to the two parties.
Cooperation
Cooperative ties between Lebanon and Syria over the Orontes are strong. A special joint
committee for the Orontes River was created under the Lebanese-Syrian Joint Committee for
Shared Water, which is the central entity through which both countries cooperate over issues
related to shared water resources. The Committee comprises two sub-committees. The River
Protection and Environmental Preservation Sub-Committee is responsible for coordinating and
supervising issues related to river hydrology, river pollution and river infringements. The Sub-
Committee for the Expropriation of Lands in the Vicinity of the Assi dam to be constructed.
Members of the sub-committees usually hold monthly meetings in Lebanon or Syria to discuss
issues related to the basin, and exchange hydrological data and results of water quality analysis.
The members also specify joint measures in order to tackle problems such as violations and
infringements along the river’s course, as well as river pollution from sewage and fisheries.
These meetings are stopped since almost 2 years, due to the prevailing events in Syria.
The Assi Dam-Project was officially launched in 2004, with a Chinese contractor starting
construction with a local partner in 2005. Phase 1 of the project was already well underway when
Israel bombed the construction site during the 2006 Lebanon War. The work has not resumed yet
pending the settlement of renegotiations with the contractor.
National Vision and Plans in Lebanon for al Assi River Basin
In Lebanon, the Orontes River is likely to be further exploited in the coming years. The newly
developed National Water Sector Strategy lists the surface storage potential of al Assi Dam in
the supply-and- demand forecasts.
At present, the use of the Orontes in Lebanon is limited to small-scale farming, fish farms and
tourism. Total water use is estimated at 21 MCM/y, of which around 23% is used for domestic
purposes, and the rest for irrigation. Official figures estimate irrigated areas in the Lebanese part
of the basin at 1,703 ha.
The Lebanese Ministry of Energy and Water has plans to increase the exploitation of water
resources in the basin. One of the projects under consideration is the Assi scheme, planned
following the agreement with Syria and aimed at developing water use for irrigation, domestic
use and power generation in the regions of Baalbek and Hermel. The project is divided into two
phases as stated before: the first phase includes a diversion dam with a storage capacity of 27

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MCM near the Ain Zarqa Spring, three pumping stations and a network for the irrigation of
around 3,000 ha. The second phase aims to construct a 37 MCM capacity dam upstream of the
Hermel Bridge, with several pumping stations and a network for the irrigation of 3,800 ha, as
well as a hydroelectric power plant providing approximately 50 MW of electricity per day.
Altogether, the proposed irrigation schemes comprise a new irrigated area of 6,800 ha in the
Hermel and Al Qaa area of the basin.
Lebanon and Syria have solicited international donors for assistance in water supply
management and hydrological monitoring, and various projects have been launched. However,
with the ongoing crisis in Syria since March 2011 it is likely that most projects involving
Lebanon with Syria are currently on hold.
Lebanon is very vulnerable to Israeli attacks, since the first diversion dam constructed on the
Orontes (60% complete) was destroyed by Israel during the Hezbollah-Israeli war of July 2006.
This attack contributed to the internationalization of the conflict, by introducing a third party
(Israel) who does not share the waters of the Orontes River with Syria and Lebanon. It will be
interesting to follow the position of Israel in the future, as this hostile act against Lebanon can be
seen as a message to Lebanese authorities who are planning to build a dam on the Hasbani River
a tributary of the Jordan River shared with Israel (Comair, 2013).
C- NAHR AL HASBANI
General Features
The Hasbani River is one of the three major headwater streams of the Upper Jordan River (UJR).
River basin catchment area is around 600 Km2. Its watershed is geographically distributed over
Rashaya, Hasbaya and Marjayoun cazas. The river runs around 21 km inside the Lebanese
territory starting from the Hasbaya source, its basin is mostly of mild slope and frequently opens
to form wide various plains. Four important springs are considered as major sources feeding the
Hasbani River; they are the Hasbani, Korcheh, Sreid and Wazzani sources.
The average yearly discharge is in the order of 143 MCM based on 30-year average, which
includes dry and wet periods (138 MCM/y Naff and Matson, 1984; other references reported the
average flow within the range of 140 to150 MCM/y).The total annual underground water flowing
through the Lebanese territory to the occupied territory is estimated between 200 and 210
MCM/y (Comair, 2008, p. 247).
Population in the watercourse area was estimated at 170,000 inhabitants in 2002 with a growth
rate of 2.2 to 2.5%.
Agreement and Cooperation
Since the early 20th century, numerous attempts to foster cooperation between basin riparian’s
countries have been hampered by the regional political conflict which continues to stand in the
way of any basin-wide agreement on water. Allocation under the Unified Plan, later known as
the Johnston Plan (1955), was 35 MCM /y from the Hasbani to Lebanon. Although this
agreement was never ratified, both sides have generally adhered to the technical details and
allocations, even while proceeding with unilateral development (Wolf, A.T. & Newton, J.T.
2008). Israel who signed the UNWC but did not ratified it, bombed the site of the work for the
derivation project of the Hasbani River in the years1964-1966.

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In the Upper Jordan River (UJR) Basin no agreements have been signed between Lebanon and
any of the other riparian countries concerning the Hasbani River. The absence of basin-wide
agreements and little to no hydro-political cooperation in the Jordan River Basin helps to explain
the absence of holistic water planning and management plans by the co-riparian.
According to the MEW, Lebanon is using annually around 7 MCM (2.7 and 4.2 MCM for
domestic and irrigation uses respectively), which represents approximately 5 % of the average
run-off of the River. The actual total abstraction is estimated between 9 and 10 MCM/y, after the
installation of a pumping station in 2002 on the Wazzani spring in spite of Israel threats. This
pumping station which originally was designated to operate at a capacity of 12,000 m3/day (4.4
MCM/y) is extracting in fact only half of this amount, representing 2.45 MCM mainly used for
domestic water supply (ESCWA,2013).
The question of water sharing in the Jordan River Basin is inextricably linked to the ongoing
conflicts between Israel and Arab countries sharing the Basin; and while a wide range of issues
are at stake, control over water in the basin has added to existing regional tensions.
National Vision and Plans in Lebanon for the Hasbani Basin
The Hasbani region remains one of the poorest in Lebanon. From a total of 11,916 ha of irrigable
lands, around 4,471 ha in the watershed have been identified as suitable for irrigation. The
irrigated areas amounted to 600 ha that were within the reaches of available resources in the year
2000. The government plans to increase this area to 4,000 hectares in 2020 (Comair, 2000).
The following paragraphs describe briefly the projects the Government is considering for the
Hasbani watercourse region.
1- The Wazzani Water Supply Project (WWSP)
The project is to serve 13 villages with a population of approximately 65,000 and consist of
supplying around 12,000 m3 /day of water, for drinking purposes (See precedent paragraph).
The demand at the moment is, approximately 13,500 m3/day (5 MCM/y), and projected to grow
to 17,500 m3/day (6.5 MCM/y) by the year 2020.
2- The Hasbaya-Hebariyah Water Project
The project involves both potable and irrigation water and is part of the government's plans to
meet medium and longer term needs. It serves 13 villages with a population of nearly 70,000
people. The project is at the preliminary study stage.
3- Ibl al Saki Storage Dam Project
The Ibl al Saki dam project consists of the construction of a water storage dam of 55 MCM
capacity along the Hasbani watercourse, at Ibl al Saqi in the caza of Hasbaya. A water treatment
plant is foreseen with a net output capacity of 125,000 m3/day for potable water usage. An area
of around 1,300 ha located below 700 m altitude could be economically irrigated from the dam,
contributing to the economic development of the area. The Ibl al Saqi dam project is at the
identification stage.
4- The Hasbaya Waste water Project
This project will serve the towns of Hasbaya and Ain Qenya with a population of approximately
20,000 people; it is at the identification stage.
However, it is unlikely to implement these vital projects before reaching a political settlement of
the Arab-Israeli conflict which constitute a major factor in the unilateral and unsustainable water

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management of the river basin. Given the prevailing circumstances, Lebanon has called upon the
UN Secretary General and the Security Council to help Lebanon implementing them.
Conclusion
National views and plans regarding the water sector were clearly defined by the MEW through
the 10 year work plan and the national water sector strategy.
For the two transboundary river basins, el-Kabir and Assi where the concerned countries have
signed agreements, the strategy is to be achieved through:
 Construction of dams that will ensure additional water resources by storing winter water
for domestic and industrial uses as well as for irrigation during the dry season.
 Insuring the distribution of potable water to unequipped villages and improving the
condition of existing potable water infrastructures.
 Increasing the irrigated areas that will ensure agricultural development and shall
contribute to strengthening the economy of the region.
 Executing wastewater treatment projects to safeguard the environment and protect the
groundwater. Treated wastewater is also seen as a supplemental water resource for
irrigation in rural areas.
 Controlling recurrent flooding in the plain areas.
Works that have already begun are, for the time being, halted due to the recent event in Syria. For
these two shared basins, the cooperation and achievement of water sharing agreements have
transformed water from a potential flashpoint for conflict to a tool of increased cooperation. As for
the Hasbani river basin, although national view/plans exist, the political situation constitutes a
major factor in the unsustainable water management. Almost all projects are at hold until further
development on the Arab-Israeli conflict.
Finally, at the request of governments, FAO can provide its interdisciplinary expertise to work
quietly towards finding what can be accepted as reasonable and equitable by the parties concerned.
References
Comair, Fadi, 2008. Gestion et hydrodiplomatie de l'eau au Proche-Orient. Les éditions L'Orient
- Le Jour, Beyrouth, Liban. 317pp.
Comair, Fadi, 2000. Regional hydropolitical issues. MEW
Comair, Georges, 2013. A new approach for water planning, management and conflict
resolutions in Lebanese transboundary basins:Hydrologic Modeling for Climate Variation and
Water Policy Development. The University of Texas at Austin, USA.
ESCWA and BGR, 2013. Inventory of Shared Water Resources in Western Asia.
ESCWA, 2009. Shared waters, shared opportunities. 18pp.
Republic of Lebanon, 2002. Position report service area of Hasbani watercourse.
Salman, S.M.A., IWRA, Water International, Volume 32, Number 1, March 2007.

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WB, 1999. Groundwater. Technical paper no 456.
WB, 1999. International watercourses. Technical paper no 414.
Wolf, A.T. & Newton J.T. 2008. Case study of transboundary dispute resolution: The Jordan
River. Johnston Negotiations 1953-1955; Yarmouk Mediations 1980s.