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2. The Concentrated Photovoltaics
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Some of the Report’s Key Findings…
Leading companies such as ArimaEco, Concentrix and Solfocus provided exclusive insights for
this report. Find out what they more than other 50 CPV manufacturers, component providers and
financiers have to say about the industry.
n Levelized Energy Costs (LCOE) could fall as low as $0.08/kWh by 2015 from $0.26/kWh
in 2010
n CPV gets a boost from the Far East, with a 59 MW project in Taiwan amongst other projects
n Highest cost CPV manufacturers are 115% more expensive than the lower cost manufacturers
n HCPV installed costs are set to fall 49% by 2015, from $4.84/Watt to 2.47/Watt in 2015
n LCPV installed costs reductions will reach 65%, from $5.05/Watt in 2010 to $1.75/Watt
in 2015
n Tracking is the highest single expenditure in HCPV, at 21% of total installed costs
These and other industry developments suggest that 2010 could be the year of CPV. Find out
how to make the most of this changing industry with the Concentrated Photovoltaics Industry
Report 2010.
Table 14: HCPV LCOE costs
Other (7.5%)
Cells (17.5%)
Inverter (7%) Segment LCOE 2010 ($) LCOE 2015 ($)
HCPV overall 0.27 0.14
HCPV high tier 0.50 0.25
HCPV mid tier 0.22 0.13
Optics (11%) Assembly (20%)
HCPV low tier 0.14 0.08
Tracking (21%)
Balance of System (16%)
Figure 27: HCPV component cost breakdown
This report, written by independent expert Andy Extance in conjunction with CPV Today, gives you
the latest data on costs, installed capacity and future projects that will enable you to plan your
strategy to make the most of this rapidly changing industry.
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3. The Concentrated Photovoltaics
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Chapter summary: The Concentrated Photovoltaics Industry Report 2010
1. Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology
1.1 Principles of CPV
1.2 High Concentration, Medium Concentration
and Low Concentration
1.2.1 Solar Cells
1.2.2 Receiver
1.2.3 Optical Elements plus:
1.2.4 Tracking n 37 Figures
1.2.5 Inverter
1.3 Geographical Suitability of CPV
n 17 Tables
1.3.1 Solar Resources n CPV Installations Maps
1.3.2 Other Geographical Factors
1.4 Power Range of CPV Installations
2. The CPV Industry The Concentrated Photovoltaics Industry Report 2010
2.1. The CPV Industry in a Nutshell fewer cells to generate an equivalent level of power. Silicon cell Table 7: Optics producers
2.1.1. CPV Drivers
manufacturers have a considerable financial interest in supplying as Optics Manufacturers Location Optics Type
many cells as possible, and effectively concentration works against
The CPV industry
them. By contrast GaAs-based triple-junction cell makers only ship Concentrator Optics Cölbe, Germany Fresnel, Secondary optics
comparatively small volumes for satellites, and therefore would like
2.1.1.1 The Need for Sustainable, Secure Energy
Microsharp Solar Watchfield. UK Fresnel
CPV to succeed to raise these volumes. The level of commitment
of triple-junction cell makers to CPV may be part of the reason why LPI California, US Fresnel
early entrants to the sector, like Solar Systems and Amonix, moved
2.1.1.1 Investor Profit Motive
to them from using silicon. However, with silicon cells remaining Isuzu Glass Osaka, Japan Fresnel , Rod lens secondary element
in oversupply, manufacturers are maintaining cordial relationships Fresnel Optics Apolda, Germany Fresnel
with CPV companies using their products. In some cases there are
Fresnel, Secondary optics and reflective
2.1.1.2 Power Company/Electricity User Demands
3M Minnesota, US
signs that partnerships between CPV system makers and well-known films
silicon cell makers are emerging that will likely enhance concentrating 10x Technology Illinois, US Fresnel
technology’s credibility. This phenomenon is currently revolving
Fresnel Solar Energy Nanjing, China Fresnel
2.1.2.2 Geographical Situation of Installation
around LCPV technology, with firms like Solaria adding single-digit
concentration factor optics to standard flat-plate cells. In this way they
gain advantages both from concentration, and the familiar cell brands
and formats.
Country/Region The number of triple-junction cell manufacturers has particularly
expanded in recent years. Both start-up companies, like Cyrium,
Quantasol and Solar Junction, and established semiconductor
Total internal reflection, flat (1) Waveguide (2)
Silicone-glass planoconvex
primary, glass ball secondary (1)
Curved lens (3)
2.1.3 CPV Barriers
manufacturers, like RFMD and JDSU, have entered the sector. This Prism lens (3)
Plastic optical
should be good news for buyers of triple-junction cells, not least front cover (1)
because greater competition should lower costs and speed efficiency
2.1.3.1 Solar and Electricity Market Composition
increases. The extra suppliers, especially the larger companies,
should also help to ease concerns about cell manufacturing capacity.
Mirrors (13)
They are also well enough established to provide trustworthy long
Fresnel lens (26)
2.1.3.2 Power Company/Financier Risk Aversion
term warranties, which should aid bankability. Meanwhile the start-
ups in particular are introducing innovative technologies, exploiting
The Concentrated Photovoltaics Industry Report 2010
nanotechnological approaches to raise cell efficiency.
Currently, optics makers appear to have more than adequate capacity MEMS-style
2.1.3.3 Legislative Landscape and Industrial Standards
microconcentrator (1)
to meet demand, however they can help players higher up the value Fresnel lens and mirrors (1)
Lens (1)
chain by improving the optical efficiency and acceptance angles of their Holigraphic films (1)
products. Figure 24: Breakdown of the types of concentrating optics used in CPV by company
2.1.3 CPV Industry SWOT Analysis
48 Spectrolab Fraunhofer ISE
Multijunction concentrators
(metamorphic. (metamorphic. Boeing-Spectrolab 36
Three junction (2 terminal, monolithic) 299x conc.) 454x conc.) (latice matched,
44 Two junction (2 terminal, monolithic) Boeing-Spectrolab
364x conc.)
Single junction GaAs (metamorphic. 41.6%
236x conc.)
2.1.4 CPV Companies, Component Providers &
40 Single crystal NREL
Concentrator (inverted,
Boeing
CPV
Thin film NREL metamorphic
Spectrolab 325.7x conc.)
36 Spectrolab
(inverted,
Crystalline Si Cells metamorphic)
Single crystal Japan 33.8%
NREL
Energy
Installed Capacity
32 Multicrystalline (inverted,
Thick Si film Varian NREL NREL NREL/
Spectrolab
metamorphic Fraunhofer ISE
(232x conc)
SunPower 1-sun)
(216x conc.) 28.8%
Thin film Technologies (96x conc.) Amonix
28 27.6%
Efficiency (%)
Cu (In,Ga)Se2 Stanford (92x conc)
UNSW
CdTe (140x conc.) Kopin UNSW UNSW UNSW FhG-ISE
25.0%
Spire
2.2.1 CPV Value Chain
24 Amorphous Si.H (stabilised) UNSW
Nano-, micro, poly-Si Stanford UNSW NREL Cu(In,Ga)
Spire Se (14x conc.) FhG-ISE
Multijunction polycrystalline Georgia Tech UNSW 20.4%
20 ARCO UNSW Georgia Tech Sharp 20.0%
Emerging PV Westinghouse Varian NREL NRELNREL NREL NREL NREL
NREL
Dye-sensitised cells NREL Sharp (large- 16.7%
2.2.2 CPV Production Capacity
16 University area)
Organic cells No. Carolina Univ. Stuttgart
(various technologies) State Uni.
So. Florida NREL AstroPower NREL
(small area) (45 µm thin-
United Solar
ARCO Boeing NREL (aSi/ncSi/ncSi)
Kodak Solarex Euro-CIS United Solar film transfer) (CdTe/CIS) 12.5%
12 Boeing Boeing
AMETEK Photon Energy 11.1%
Matsushita United Sharp
EPFL Solamer
Kodak Boeing Solar
8 Monosolar United Solar Kaneka NREL/Konarka Konarka
Inc
RCA (2 µm on glass) University Linz 6.8%
University Boeing Solarex
EPFL
3. The Cost of CPV
4 of Maine Groningen Siemens Plextronics
RCA RCA University Linz
RCA RCA University Linz
RCA
RCA
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Figure 6: Record solar cell efficiencies2.
3.1. CPV Cost Measures Credit: NREL.
increases the mobility of electrons, causing the flow of current to completely dissipated, its temperature rises and its power output falls.
3.1.1 Installed Cost
increase slightly, this increase is minor compared to the decrease in Power lost through series resistance also increases in proportion to the
voltage. GaAs is less badly affected by this phenomenon than silicon, square of the photocurrent, and becomes especially important at high
meaning that it needs less cooling and can produce more reliable cells concentration levels. A third challenge of high concentration systems
3.1.2 Levelized Cost of Energy
than its more common rival. comes because high currents and temperatures will worsen any slight
Temperature sensitivity is one part of the reason why the levels imperfections in the solar cell. This can ultimately lead to their failure.
The Concentrated Photovoltaics Industry Report 2010
of concentration used in CPV are limited. Assuming an optimal chip
efficiency of 40%, 2000 suns would still require 120 W/cm2 of heat to 1.2.2 Receiver
3.2 Installed Cost and Component Cost of CPV be dissipated from the chip3. By comparison, NASA’s space shuttles
experience 10 W/cm2 during re-entry, and the throat of their rocket
nozzles reaches 100 W/cm2. If the heat absorbed by a cell is not
Solar cells have to be mounted on a receiver to extract the current
generated and to dissipate and remove heat. Current extraction is
Mechanically stacked
achieved using thick wires or ribbonsmulti-terminal
that are soldered to the cells,
3.2.1 HCPV Cost Breakdown per Component Monolithically integrated
two-terminal 14
3.2.2 LCPV Cost Breakdown per Component
CPV
1st cell
Decreasing band gap
3.3 CPV Levelized Cost of Electricity
Front contact 1st cell
2nd cell
3.3.1 HCPV
2nd cell
3rd cell
n-doped Si
3.3.2 LCPV p-doped Si
Back contact
3rd cell
Figure 4: A single-junction silicon cell Figure 5: Two approaches for multi-junction solar cells4. In the mechanically stacked approach on the left single-
4. Installed Capacity Forecast
junction cells of different semiconductor materials are manufactured and stacked on top of each other. This leads
to multiple terminals which have to be connected properly in the module. In the monolithic approach on the right,
semiconductor materials with different band-gap energies are grown epitaxially on top of each other. The internal
series connection of the subcells is achieved by tunnel diodes. Note that neither approach is limited to just three
junctions, as shown here, and that the two can be combined.
4.1 Forecast Parameters and Methodology The band gap of GaAs is nearly narrow enough to absorb the whole
spectrum of sunlight irradiating the Earth. As they can absorb a high
proportion of the light hitting them GaAs cells can be just a few microns
highest performance systems. These levels of performance can only
be achieved if the cell contains the highest quality semiconductor
materials. This requirement adds to the comparatively higher price of
4.2 Key Factors in US CPV Market Growth
thick, compared to more than 100 microns for silicon cells. GaAs itself in raising the cost of the highest performance cells.
However, today’s record efficiency devices only use this as a One of the main features to be taken into account when dealing
springboard. As well as a GaAs-based middle junction, the germanium with CPV cells is their thermal behaviour. At high temperatures, the
4.2.1 CPV’s Place in the Solar Market
wafers that they’re fabricated on are normally used to produce another performance of both silicon and GaAs cells falls as the semiconductor’s
The Concentrated Photovoltaics Industry Report 2010 junction is produced from gallium indium
junction. Then a third conductivity increases. The higher conductivity balances out the
phosphide (GaInP), with each junction optimised to absorb light from distribution of electrons and holes, reducing the magnitude of the
1. Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology
their respective areas of the spectrum. Such designs have delivered electric field at the junction. This in turn inhibits charge separation,
4.2.2 US Government Policies efficiencies above 40% and are found in the highest concentration, which lowers the voltage across the cell. While the higher temperature
13
4.2.3 Anticipated Demand for Renewable Energy 1.1 Principles of CPV with cheaper optics. It also provides the opportunity to use the world’s
CPV
Anyone who played with a magnifying glass in the sunshine as a child most efficient cells, which have been specifically designed to work with
will have an elementary understanding of solar concentration. In this concentrating optics in order to achieve their records.
4.2.4 Enhanced Cell and Module Efficiency simple experiment, the lens bends the sunlight that is initially falling
across its surface, focussing its energy down to an area as small as
a single point. Concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systems use similar
Current CPV technologies are based on mirrors and/or lenses
able to concentrate sunlight to take advantage of these benefits in
power generation. In quantitative terms, producing one watt at a
4.2.5 Declining LCOE optical principles to focus direct sunlight onto semiconductor cells
that transform solar energy into electricity. Concentrating the light
collects the same amount of solar energy as today’s dominant flat-
concentration ratio of 1000 suns and 25% cell efficiency requires
1775 times less semiconductor surface than producing the same watt
without concentration with an ordinary cell at efficiency of 14%1. While
4.2.6 CPV Technology Deployment Multiple plate PV panels, using a smaller overall solar cell area. Such a system
offers competitive power generation, matching or even exceeding rival
technologies’ output but replacing costly semiconductor solar cells
doing this makes CPV collectors significantly more complex than
standard PV modules, using substantially smaller cell areas holds the
promise of lower costs.
4.3 Overall CPV Installation Forecast Through 2015
4.3.1 Optimistic Scenario
Modules
4.3.2 Moderate Scenario
4.3.3 Pessimistic Scenario Tracker
mechanism
4.4 Regional CPV installation forecast through to 2015
4.5 Cell Market Through 2015 Figure 2: CPV collectors: dish (left), pedestal (middle) and trough (right) configurations.
Source: IEC 62108, 2007
10
5. Profiles of CPV Technologies in the Market
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Previous CPV Today reports buyers…
■■ABB ■■Korea Institute of Energy
■■Arima EcoEnergy Research (KIER)
Technologies ■■Optoelectronics Research
■■Asahi Kasei Corporation Centre
■■Bechtel Enterprises ■■Petrobras
3rd Concentrated ■■Electric Power Research ■■Quanta Sol
Photovoltaics Institute ■■RFMD
Summit Europe ■■Fresnel Optics ■■Robert Bosch GmbH
■■Gyeonggi Technopark ■■Samsung Electronics
November 18-19, Seville, Spain
■■Hyundai Engineering ■■Soitec
Proving CPV´s ■■Institute of Microelectronics ■■StatoilHydro
commercial viability: Technology ■■Stirling Energy Systems
■■ISOWATT Made SL ■■Sumitomo
n Building the track
■■JDSU ■■Umicore
record
■■KIMM (Korea Institute of ■■Veeco
n Cutting costs
Machinery & Materials) ■■And Many More….
n Securing finance
■■Kuraray Co.
To find out more visit
www.cpvtoday.com/eu
About the author
Andy Extance is a freelance science journalist and market
analyst. Until June 2009 he was news editor for Compound
Semiconductor magazine, where he regularly covered the CPV
industry. He also has several years experience working in the
chemical industry, including producing packaging materials
for photovoltaic and other semiconductor applications.
He has an MChem in chemistry from the University of
Southampton, UK, and is a Chartered Chemist and Chartered Scientist.
oRdeR noW
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