1. Andrew Goodwin’s Theory
Andrew Goodwin identifies key features that distinguish music as a
form:
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Links between lyrics and visuals
Voyeurism
Voyeurism and the objectification of women
Demands of the record label
Intertextual references
Visual is performance-based, narrative-based or concept-based

2. Links between lyrics and visuals
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The lyrics of the song are often represented through the images on
the screen.
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The images within the music video will usually do one of three
things; illustrate, amplify or contradict the lyrics.
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Often the visuals will illustrate or amplify the lyrics but sometimes
they will directly contrast with the lyrics in order to reinforce the
message of the song.

3. Links between lyrics and visuals
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Rihanna featuring Calvin Harris “We Found Love”:
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The lyrics show a couple in an intense relationship with a
background of urban deprivation, including estates, supermarkets
and take away restaurants.

4. Links between lyrics and visuals
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The theory states that there is not only a link between the lyrics and
the visuals, but also the music and the visuals.
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This means the images and visuals on screen may be edited in
time to the beat, the pace and the emotion of the song.
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Again, the visuals do one of three things; illustrate, amplify or
contradict the music.
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For example, in Iggy Azalea “Bounce” sometimes, the editing is
fast-paced and it’s almost flashing and this reflects the sound we
hear.

5. Voyeurism
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Voyeurism is concerned with notions of looking.
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In music videos there are often direct references to the idea of
looking.
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This is often shown with representations of mirrors, screens within
screens, telescopes etc.
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Handheld cameras are also a technique that can be used that gives
the idea of looking.

6. Voyeurism and the objectification of
women
- Women are particularly subjected to voyeuristic objectification in music
videos. This helps increase the appeal of the video to men.

7. Demand of the record label
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The record label has a lot of control over the artist they sign and
they can shape the representation of the star into what they think
will sell the most music.
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The record labels who sign up, produce, promote and market (i.e.
spend a lot of money on) the artist and their music demand certain
things to be included or to happen in the music video for that artist’s
song.
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The most common thing that the labels demand is that there has to
be lots of close-ups of the artist. The reasoning behind this is it
helps the audience know who the artist is and what they look like. It
also help the audience notice and understand the singer’s star
image and persona.
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Female stars are commonly sexualised in the videos. Men are also
portrayed in ways that will appeal to a female audience. For
example, One Direction are always portrayed as fun-loving clean
cut young men. I.e. they are not represented as “bad boys”
because they are trying to appeal to quite a young female audience
and the record label wants parents to approve of them so they will
buy their female children One Direction merchandising.

8. Intertextual References
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Intertextual references are common now within music videos and
the media in general.
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Intertextuality means when a media text references another media
text.
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Katy Perry’s “Last Friday Night” video uses a lot of intertextual
references to films including opening and closing credits, outtakes
at the end, and teen movie characters and narrative.