Virtual City Models Avoidance of Obsolescence

213City Modelling - Volume 1 - eCAADe 30 |
INTRODUCTION
The visual seduction techniques of a 3D virtual city
are clear, but datasets of this type, often involving
a range of invested stakeholders, can become en-
twined in debates of ownership, responsibility, legal
access to data and IT issues (Horne et al., 2007). This
paper offers an initial and ongoing investigation into
the research area of VCM obsolescence factors and
obsolescence-prevention strategies; it constitutes a
preliminary and limited exploration, establishing a
foundation for further study.
Research in the production, maintenance, usage
and distribution of VCMs has been widely published
since the early 1990’s from a range of disciplines in-
cluding; geography, landscape and environmental
planning, urban planning, architecture, geo-infor-
mation science and computer graphics science (Ab-
dul-Rahman and Pilouk, 2007; Batty et al., 2000; Bo-
dum et al., 2006; Bourdakis, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2008;
Virtual City Models: Avoidance of Obsolescence
Peter James Morton
1
, Margaret Horne
2
, Ruth Conroy Dalton
3
, Emine Mine Thompson
4
.
Northumbria University, United Kingdom.
1
http://www.northumbria.ac.uk
2
http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/sd/academic/bne/study/
aec/acestaff/margarethorne
3
http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/sd/academic/bne/study/aec/
acestaff/rconroydalton
4
http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/sd/academic/bne/study/aec/aces-
taff/eminethompson
1
peter.j.morton@unn.ac.uk,
2
margaret.horne@northumbria.ac.uk,
3
ruth.dalton@northum-
bria.ac.uk,
4
emine.thompson@northumbria.ac.uk.
Abstract. This paper offers an initial and ongoing investigation into the research
area of Virtual City Models (VCMs). It builds upon previous research carried out
by the VirtualNewcastleGateshead (VNG) team by providing an overview of VCMs
multifunctions and emerging issues but specifically investigating the obsolescence
factors and obsolescence-prevention strategies. This paper is part of a PhD research and
provides a preliminary exploration of the issues described above. The study will conclude
by identifying the progress of VNG thus far and the strategies employed by the VNG team
to tackle the obsolescence factors identified in this paper.
Keywords. Virtual City Models; Applications; Services; Obsolescence Factors;
Strategies.
Brenner, 2000; Capstick and Heathcote, 2006; Coors
and Ewald, 2005; Delaney, 2000; Dokonal and Mar-
tens, 2001; Dokonal et al., 2000; Dokonal et al., 2004;
Dollner et al., 2006; Ewald and Coors, 2005; Forstner,
1999; Groger and Plumer, 2011; Guercke et al., 2009;
Haala and Brenner, 1997; Haala et al., 1997; Horne,
2009; Horne et al., 2007; Mao, 2010; Mao et al., 2009;
Nomden et al., 2009; Parish and Muller, 2001; Quinn
et al., 2009; Sadek et al., 2002; Shiode, 2001; Smart et
al., 2011; Stadler and Kolbe, 2007; Takase et al., 2003;
Thompson and Horne, 2008, 2009; Thompson et al.,
2006; Thompson et al., 2011) and others.
3D CITY MODELS
Real life cities have been represented in many forms
over time; from two dimensional maps, 3D physical
scale models for city planning and the digital rep-
resentation in the form of VCMs. VCMs can be sim-

214 | eCAADe 30 - Volume 1 - City Modelling
ply described as a digital graphical representation
portraying any real world city or specific parts of it
(Thompson et al., 2006). These digital representa-
tions of real life cities have, in recent years become
a topic of interest in both research and professional
communities primarily due to the advancements
in the technologies and practices used for data ac-
quisition, reconstruction and maintenance of VCMs.
Recent innovations in computing, technology and
sensor systems have provided a new base line for
the construction of VCMs. Higher powered com-
puters have enabled the production and storage
of more complex models with larger file sizes than
ever before. Advancements in computer graphics
cards have also enabled the viewing of complex 3D
models electronically. The recent advancements in
Augmented Reality (AR) have opened up new ways
to view and interact with 3D city models for profes-
sionals and members of the public alike. Much like a
real city, a VCM can be seen as an organic entity that
continually grows changes and adapts due to either
environmental factors, trends or change in end user
requirements. VCMs have been created for a variety
of different applications, either singular or multi-
functional. Batty et al. (2000); Groger and Plumer
(2011); Kolbe and Groger (2003) list several different
categories;
• Emergency Response/ Disaster Management
• Urban Planning, Architecture and Property
Analysis
• Telecommunications, Infrastructure, Facilities
and Urban Management
• Tourism, Entertainment, E-commerce and City
Portals
• Environment and Traffic Simulation
• Education and Learning
The concept of multiple 3D city models existing for
a single real life city, each with separate desired ap-
plications has been challenged by the possibility of
creating a single city model which could be utilized
for many applications (Bourdakis, 2008). This single
multifunctional city model would seek to prevent
the disjointed ‘jig-saw’ 3D city model with the risk
of incompatible computer platforms, diverse scales
and differing levels of detail (Bourdakis, 2008; Horne,
2009). The risk of incompatibility between different
models would be the main driver for the creation of
a single model.
WORLDWIDE VCMS
The number of VCMs being created by municipali-
ties, local and national councils, surveying agencies,
educational institutions and other organisations is
steadily increasing due to the significant advance-
ments in 3D reconstruction methods (Ross, 2012).
This paper has identified over one thousand VCMs
worldwide (Table 1), information has being gathered
from a variety of sources such as research papers
(Araby and Okeil, 2004; Batty et al., 2000; Dokonal
and Martens, 2001; Hadjri, 2003; Ishida, 2002; Peng
et al., 2002; Thompson et al., 2006) and others[1],
and from VCM production companies Arup, Blom[2],
Bluesky[3], CASA[4], Computamaps[5], CyberCity
3D[6], GeoSim[7], GTA Geoinformatik[8], Planet 9
Studio[9], PLW Modelworks[10], UVM Systems[11],
Vertex Modelling[12], virtualcitySYSTEMS[13], Vir-
tual Viewing[14] and Z-mapping[15] and others.
At this stage, it is clear which continents are
actively producing VCMs with Europe and North
America leading the way. It is envisaged that this
list of VCMs will be utilised for future investigation
into VCM obsolescence factors through detailed
case studies of individual VCMs. This list will develop
over time increasing in number as new VCMs are in-
troduced, the limitation to the current list is the dif-
ficulty of sourcing data regarding VCMs which are
insufficiently marketed and embody reduced online
presence.
EMERGING ISSUES
Historically, the primary application of VCMs has
been a means to visualise the urban landscape for
interested parties. Batty et al. (2000); Groger and
Plumer (2011); Kolbe and Groger (2003) indicate
there are other applications being investigated/im-
plemented most of which have been successfully
integrated into a useable single function VCM. The
future looks to streamline and combine all possible

applications in to a single multifunctional city mod-
el. Horne et al. (2007); Podevyn et al. (2009); Podevyn
et al. (2008) identified emerging issues relating to
the management, update and access to model data.
Bodum et al. (2006) identified the focus for VCMs
should be on interoperability rather than it’s simi-
larity to the real world. For the evolution of VCMs to
occur and to safe guard investment, minimize VCM
obsolescence and promote a future proof VCM, sev-
eral key issues need to be resolved.
In digital environments, there are vast arrays of
file formats available with varying levels of support
available from providers, therefore careful consid-
eration must be undertaken to utlise a suitable file
format that is usable in its native environment and
interoperable with other environments but also
supported in both legacy and future releases. This
can also be said for hardware and software require-
ments. Insufficient support for file formats, slow or
limited up take for supporting hardware and soft-
ware or file format being superseded by another
may all contribute to the potential risk for file format
obsolescence.
The ability to exchange and use information be-
tween software platforms and database structures
independent of their file formats (interoperability)
is extremely important to maintain flexible VCM en-
vironments. Reduced levels of interoperability will
decrease the potential applications and increase the
risk for the VCM becoming unused and obsolete.
In every aspect of life trends develop and
change over time, what once was desirable and re-
quired can soon become undesirable and surplus
to requirements. The same can be said with the ap-
plications VCMs are used for; the possible required
applications can evolve over time. If a VCM does not
carry out periodic requirement capture exercises
a VCM runs the risk of not providing what is really
needed, this will ultimately produce a VCM of no use
to anyone, driving it to a state of obsolescence.
A VCM needs to be accessible and useable (data
sharing) by a variety of users, from the specialist
down to the lay user. Reduced accessibility and us-
ability will decrease overall interactivity by users and
ultimately increase the risk of VCM obsolescence.
The production, maintenance and usage of
VCMs require personnel with specialist skills and
knowledge. It is important to maintain sufficient
personnel to cater for the VCM, should certain per-
sonnel leave the project there should be procedures
in place to make sure that the VCM is sufficiently
staffed to avoid downtime. Staking the success of
the VCM on a single person is not best practice, a
team must be developed to share the experience
and maintain constant cover for the VCM. If a VCM is
left without sufficient cover it will fall into problems
and eventually become out of date, unusable and
therefore obsolete.
The development of most large scale VCMs will
undoubtedly involve more than one stakeholder;
someone with an invested interest in the project;
whether the source data suppliers, the author of
the model itself or the funding body and the end
users. The question of who owns what, and more
importantly who is liable for what, (intellectual
property rights) is a topic that has yet to be greatly
Table 1
VCMs by continent
Continent Total VCMs
Europe 618
North America 260
Asia 96
South America 42
Africa 30
Australia and Oceania 24
Total 1070

researched. This may be due to the lack of case
history and insufficient data to draw conclusions
from. VCMs designed on a non-collaborative legal
framework ultimately prove troublesome when/
if legal disputes arise, if this happens the VCM will
become unsustainable. The Level-of-detail (LoD) a
VCM is produced at can determine its eventual ap-
plications. Problems arise when the classification of
LoD differ from model to model. Even though there
is an international standard (CityGML) produced
by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), many
VCMs have been produced with differing LoDs and
scale classifications. Producing a VCM at either a too
low or high LoD will limit its eventual applications,
which over time will increase the potential for the
VCM becoming unused and obsolete. Financial sus-
tainability is extremely important for any venture
which aims to provide a service for a fee. A business
model must be developed which takes into consid-
eration ultimate VCM requirements, risk analysis and
full support of the team. Failure to do so will create
an unsustainable product which will have a limited
shelf life. There are no accepted classification criteria
of what constitutes a city model (Kolbe and Groger,
2003), this causes problems. Anyone can create a 3D
representation of a city or part of a city and make it
available to the world via personal website or blog.
The LoD, accuracy and standards adhered to could
be well below the accepted norm, which has yet to
be determined, but there is no audit process to de-
termine what is sufficient for a model to be classed
as a city model. There needs to be standards imple-
mented so city models produced go through an
evaluation process and are awarded ‘certified city
model status’, thus maintaining LoD, accuracy and
standards across all city models produced world-
wide. VCMs affected by the any of the above issues
have the potential for the VCM to become obsolete.
These issues need to be addressed and strategies
developed and implemented in order to safe guard
investment, minimize VCM obsolescence and pro-
mote a future proof VCM.
OBSOLESCENCE
Obsolescence is a process that affects almost eve-
rything we interact with and use in this increasingly
technology driven digital world and it is a major risk
threatening the sustainability and ultimate life span
of any given service, product or function. General
definitions of obsolescence differ from field to field
but ultimately describe the process of the aforemen-
tioned service, product or function ceasing to be
usable, relevant or required (Aryee, 1991; Pangburn
and Sundaresan, 2009; Pearson and Webb, 2008;
Rosenthal, 2010; Sandborn, 2007).
Obsolescence can be separated into four dis-
tinct categories: Software/Format; Hardware/Physi-
cal; Product/Data; and Personnel/Skilled Profession-
als.
Software/Format obsolescence may not affect
the casual users of digital data but can cause po-
tentially major problems for professional data us-
ers and data managers (Pearson, 2007). The process
of managing, reducing and preventing Software/
Format obsolescence has evolved over decades
and become a discipline in itself, this being ‘digital
preservation’. There are several reasons for Software/
Format obsolescence including: upgrades, the new
version of the software no longer works with legacy
versions; supporting software being bought out and
withdrawn by a competitor; format falling into dis-
use or support is discontinued; format is no longer
compatible with modern environments. Hardware
has developed a symbiotic relationship with soft-
ware, where improvements are driven by the lead-
ing manufacturers and developers pushing older
hardware and software to obsolescence (Sandborn,
2007).
Similar to the use of printed text such as journal
articles, usage declines with the passage of time. As
each year passes the information is typically seen as
less and less up to date and relevant. The expected
uses are seen to decline from year to year, this can
be identified as the constant obsolescence rate
(COR) (Coughlin, 1988). Products and data need to
be updated to current versions to maintain its us-
ability and prevent the eventual decline in usage.

Due to the development of the above categories
personnel must maintain a level of expertise to op-
erate the software, hardware and product, periodic
requirement capture exercises must be carried out
partnered with applicable levels of training for per-
sonnel to maintain the required skill levels. Attention
should also be drawn to the concept of planned ob-
solescence, typically associated with a monopolistic
undersupply, where the service, product or function
is intentionally developed to be incompatible with
previous versions to induce consumers to upgrade
(Miao, 2011). Strategies developed for dealing with
technological obsolescence include the migration
of digital information to accessible technologies, the
emulation of obsolete systems and the preservation
of obsolete systems.
Typically when newer goods or technologies are
introduced that supersede previous versions, that
version becomes surplus to requirement and is not
used. However this does not happen with VCMs,
multiple VCMs are available for the same city at vary-
ing LoD, accuracy and data age yet none have been
classified as superseded. This could be due to the
VCMs not being appropriately marketed and read-
ily available to industry professionals and research-
ers alike. This theory can be directly applied to the
data and 3D representations in a VCM. When first
constructed the VCM will use up to date data and
if made accessible, will be used by industry profes-
sionals. As the years pass the similarity of the data
to the real city reduces and the data becomes out
of date, maintaining the currency of a VCM is a key
challenge.
VCM OBSOLESCENCE
The creation of a VCM would be possible through a
significant investment of time and money by pro-
ject stakeholders, including commissioning bodies,
clients and/or indeed data acquisition providers.
Processes should be identified and implemented to
safe guard the investment being fuelled into the ini-
tial creation and subsequent maintenance and up-
Obsolescence Factor Strategy
File Format Maintaining widely used file format which can be imported and
exported to common software applications.
Data Interoperability A periodic approach to testing interoperability between VCM and
other applications. Aligning VCM with international standard
such as CityGML.
Hardware/Software
requirements
Yearly upgrade cycle to maintain current releases of software.
Hardware typically upgraded every two years. Use standard off-
the-shelf software. Use open source software.
Applications/functions
no longer required
Periodic requirement capture needed to ascertain what industry
professionals require from a VCM.
VCM being superseded
by newer version
International register to be developed including all data
attributes of each VCM. Giving potential users. An update
strategy/cycle to maintain up-to-date data.
Accessibility/Usability The VCM needs to be accessible and usable by specialist
professionals and the lay user with varying requirements.
Loss of skilled
professionals
Numerous personnel to be trained to create, update and
maintain the VCM.
Financially
unsustainable
A structured business model to be developed prior to the VCM
project being started.
Table 2
Proposed strategies for obso-
lescence factors.

date of a VCM and prevent the possibility of model
obsolescence. VCM obsolescence can be identified
as being the point in which a VCM has achieved its
original creation goal or requirements and is seen to
be of no further use, or the VCM has reached a point
in which it has become unusable due to hardware/
software requirements or outdated similarity to the
real life city. Several factors drawn from the emerg-
ing issues previously identified may contribute to
the potential obsolescence of a VCM. Table 2 indi-
cates preliminary proposed strategies for tackling
the various obsolescence factors identified.
VIRTUAL NEWCASTLE GATESHEAD
Newcastle upon Tyne is a city in the North East of
England. The city is situated on the northern bank of
the River Tyne which is also shared on the southern
bank by the city of Gateshead. Virtual Newcastle-
Gateshead (VNG) [16] is a collaborative joint venture
between Northumbria University, Newcastle City
Council and Gateshead Council to create a 3D digi-
tal model of the city centres of both Newcastle and
Gateshead. These two city models have been com-
bined to create the ‘Virtual NewcastleGateshead’.
The aim of the VNG project is to seek ways to create
one definitive, accurate, interactive model of New-
castleGateshead with the potential to be used for
multifunctions. VNG has recognised that in order to
be successful and sustainable, a digital model needs
to be effectively managed, regularly updated and
integrated into existing working practices and pro-
cesses. These organisational requirements are as im-
portant as having appropriate technical solutions in
place. Furthermore, the ability to access, present and
communicate the information in VNG to the lay user
is of paramount importance to the sustainability of
the model and the potential of a future proof VCM.
Thompson et al. (2011) reports Northumbria Univer-
sity have been working to establish a relationship
between the two local authorities (Newcastle City
Council and Gateshead Council) in order to achieve
one single collaborative authoritative city model.
VNG is a 3D model of two urban areas, covering
30km
2
at present, with a view to extend the cover-
age approximately to 102km
2
(Table 3). Aerial pho-
togrammetry and 3D modelling technologies were
used to create this model the initial focus of which
was to be used for public planning, education and
research. This alignment with the research require-
ments of the university has resulted in a recent ex-
pansion of VNG to support research (Elbanhawy et
Details of VNG Model
Currency Data captured in 2012
Data capture Aerial photogrammetry and laser scanning survey techniques (with the
future model to be based upon a database structure to facilitate regular
update procedures and efficient management).
Terrain accuracy 0cm-25cm for 70% of points.
Terrain Presenting small and large grassy areas, wooded areas, main and minor
roads, railways, pathways, bridges, car parks, rivers, water bodies, trees
and vertical embankments.
Building detail Initially high detail with features (roof structures, chimneys, pitched roofs,
flat roofs, parapets, dormer windows, separation of individual buildings,
etc) Facades, textures added to achieve higher LoDs when required.
Format Initially .dwg for the context model, 3dsMax and VR4Max formats used
for detailing and interactive presentation purposes. Other formats such
as SketchUp etc provided for the councils and general public when
required.
Table 3
Details of VNG model
as updated from May 2012.

al. 2012) which is exploring the strategic use of three
dimensional modelling and simulation to support
electric mobility. This research will utilize VNG to
incorporate agent based modelling and to support
geographical analysis to simulate the behaviour of
users of electric vehicles. The study is part of an EU
Interreg IVB funded project to develop a North Sea
Region Electric Mobility Network and will endeav-
our to bring together people working in related e-
mobility projects to explore common-ground areas
of research. The extended geographical areas will
enable the creation and testing of a VR environment
involving port/airport/city centre “traffic corridors”
with the greatest number of potential electric ve-
hicle users. It has been agreed with Newcastle City
Council that the area should include as much of the
Tyne Corridor as possible as well as strategic routes
for increased transport resulting from future devel-
opment sites to the north of the city and towards
the airport (Figure 1).
VNG is approaching the end of a three-year
business programme by the end of 2012. The origi-
nal business model predicted income derived from
major planning applications (estimated 60-80 per
annum for Newcastle and 56 per annum for Gates-
head). The global economic recession has resulted
in reductions in the number of major developments
in Newcastle and Gateshead, but VNG has man-
aged nonetheless to be successfully utilised for a
number of major developments and has assisted
decision making in the planning process for both
local authorities. An experienced city modeller has
been appointed and strategic links with the Royal
Institute of British Architects (RIBA), Northern Archi-
tecture and other regional bodies have been made
to raise awareness of VNG’s future activities and vi-
sion. By linking VNG to the research requirements
of Northumbria University, it is currently procuring
additional 3D model data, extending its geographi-
cal coverage to over 100 sq km. Over the course of
the three years VNG has conducted pilot studies on
interoperability with other software, including VIS-
Sim, Legion Studio, CadnaA, Star CCM+, Townscope,
LandXplorer and others. Discussions are ongoing to
Figure 1
Extents of Virtual Newcastle-
Gateshead (different colours
indicate the historical expan-
sion of the model).

explore other income generating opportunities and
how these can be approached in a strategic and sys-
tematic way.
A case study was carried out on the VNG project
to ascertain the strategies employed to counter the
previously identified obsolescence factors (Table 4).
This shows the VNG team has developed strategies
for the majority of the obsolescence factors inden-
tified; this upfront effort planning will undoubtedly
have contributed to the success of the project. The
factors showing less strategic development are
those that are yet to arise. As indicated in this pa-
per, a reiterative requirement capture exercise must
be carried out to determine any changes in the re-
quirements for the VCM in all of the obsolescence
factors identified. These cycles will inform the VCM
team of any areas that require attention and further
development to maintain a VCM that is up-to-date,
embodying functionality required by potential users
and in a format that is readily accessible and usable
by potential users.
CONCLUSION
It is clear that obsolescence is an issue that has
blighted a plethora of industries, products and ser-
vices for decades, with each industry developing
strategies for preventing or minimising obsoles-
cence. Whether implementing digital preservation
techniques to extend the life span of file formats,
periodic requirement capture to maintain up-to-
date skill sets of industry professional or simply
planning for the eventual obsolescence of a product
or service. Based on research carried out on VCMs,
it is evident that although much research has been
carried out on the creation process and applica-
tions of VCMs, limited work has been carried out on
the identification of obsolescence factors and the
strategies implemented to counter these. Currently
each obsolescence factor identified in this research
has been weighted equally; however, this may not
actually be the case. Some factors may hold more
importance and ultimately be more critical in the
promotion of obsolescence. This issue will be fur-
ther investigated in the ongoing research. The VNG
project has demonstrated its continuing success
through completing its initial three year business
plan. The obsolescence factor strategies imple-
mented clearly reiterate the fact that consideration
has to be made and strategies developed to counter
the risks of VCM obsolescence. A ‘what if’ scenario
should be carried out for the obsolescence factors
not fully strategised and a theoretical strategy de-
veloped.
Future work
As stated, this paper offered an initial and ongoing
investigation into the research area of VCM obsoles-
cence factors and obsolescence-prevention strate-
gies; future work will involve individual detailed in-
vestigations into the separate obsolescence factors
identified and how to sufficiently provide strategies.
This process will be carried out through statistical
data analysis, literature reviews and case studies of
selected VCMs worldwide. This list will develop over
time increasing in number as new VCMs are intro-
duced, the limitation to the current list is the dif-
ficulty of sourcing data regarding VCMs which are
insufficiently marketed and embody reduced online
presence. Data from this will ultimately be used in
the process of identifying the ranking and weight-
ing of the obsolescence factors, defining which are
the critical factors which need addressed first. As
indicated in this paper, there are no accepted clas-
sification criteria of what constitutes a VCM, future
work is planned to identify the minimum percent-
age of real city size that constitutes a VCM.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Acknowledgement is made to Newcastle City Coun-
cil and Gateshead Council who have given their time
and support for the VNG project, Z-mapping Ltd,
BlueSky International Ltd and Arup for VNG model
data supplied to date and to VCM data providers for
supplying information regarding their 3D city mod-
els.

Obsolescence Factor Strategy
File Format .DWG for compatibility with industry software.
Data Interoperability VNG have conducted pilots on VISSIM (vehicle simulation), Legion
Studio (pedestrian simulation), CadnaA (Noise mapping), Star CCM+
(Wind Analysis), TownScope (Solar access and Temperature Analysis)
and LandXplorer.
Hardware/Software
requirements
Hardware updates usually on a three-year cycle.
Applications/
Functions no longer
required
Not yet arisen with VNG as only focusing on urban planning,
education and research.
VCM being
superseded by newer
version
From the beginning, VNG always aimed to be an authoritative model
by working with the City authorities closely and by updating with
information on major planning applications. VNG is aware of other
versions but none that are as closely aligned to the urban planning
requirements of both Newcastle City Council and Gateshead Council.
Accessibility VNG was originally created for urban planning related issues and
therefore data is shared with the councils; a future requirement is to
be able to offer information to the general public via public
consultation.
VNG is hosted by the university who make available certain parts of
the model data to Newcastle City Council and Gateshead Council for
urban planning purposes, via File Transfer Protocol (FTP). VNG has
been brought to the attention of local architects via strategic
collaborations with the RIBA and Northern Architecture and a range
of services are offered to architects to provide them with strategic
views from a wider urban context. VNG has been brought to the
attention of property developers by attendance at developer forums
hosted by the local authorities. Other interested parties, such as
English Heritage, and organisations with regional responsibilities
have been made aware of the model by individual meetings. A
quarterly newsletter is circulated to over two hundred companies to
update them on developments. An optimised model of VNG was
made available to the general public during the summer of 2011.
Loss of skilled
professionals
VNG is hosted by a Northumbria University in collaboration with
Newcastle City Council and Gateshead Council, each organisation is
large enough for responsibilities to be transferred to, or covered by,
other experienced members of staff.
Financially
unsustainable
The three organisations (Northumbria University, Newcastle City
Council, Gateshead Council) formed a working group to produce a
business proposal which included an analysis of requirements,
business case, three-year financial model, risk analysis,
recommendations and letters of support. A Steering Group was then
formed to direct the initiative over the initial three year programme,
and set up the necessary procedures and processes
Table 4
VNG obsolescence strategies.

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[2] http://www.blomasa.com/
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[10] http://plwmodelworks.com/
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[12] http://www.vertexmodelling.co.uk/site/
[13] http://www.virtualcitysystems.de/
[14] http://blog.virtualviewing.co.uk/
[15] http://www.zmapping.co.uk/
[16] http://virtualng.northumbria.ac.uk/

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