Wonders Of The World

Ancient World Wonders
The creation of the first lists of Wonders of the world is
attributed to Herodotus (famous Greek historian, 484 BC –
425 BC) and Calimachus of Cyrene (chief of the Library of
Alexandria 305 – 240 BC). However, it is also beleived that the
traditional list was also made by Philo of Byzantium and
written on his work "On the Seven Wonders" in 225 BC. Finally,
around 140 BC, Antipater of Sidon compiled a later version of
the list describing the structures in a poem. The monuments
mentioned in these lists were inspired by the mythology,
religion and art of the ancient great civilizations of the world.
The Ancient Seven Wonders of the World reflected the ability
of the men to change the nature in order to build wonderful
and beautiful structures which amaze and inspire the people.
It believes that these constructions of classical antiquity were
constructed since 2700 B.C. but, unfortunately, only one of the
wonders mentioned by Herodotus has survived until today:
The Pyramids of Giza. However, the Ancient Seven Wonders
list included:

1.GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA,
EGYPT

It is also known as the Great Pyramid of Khufu or the Great
Pyramid of the pharaoh Cheops as was called by Greeks; who
listed this pyramid as the first wonder of the world. It is the only
one of the seven ancient wonders still remaining to our days
and one of the most famous tourist attractions in the modern
world. The Pyramid is located in the Giza Necropolis very near
Cairo, the capital of Egypt. The total mass of the great
pyramid is estimated around 5.9 million tons and its volume is
approximately 2.6 million cubic meters. The great pyramid
was surfaced by white casing stones and blocks of highly
polished white limestone; therefore the original monument
shine brightly with the sun as a jewel. It is a great testimony of
perfection in design and construction that reached ancient
Egyptian. Many people consider still Giza as a spiritual and
energetic place; therefore several privates groups visit Giza all
the time attracted by the mystical aspect of the Great
Pyramid…
History

Historians believe that the great pyramid was constructed in
the fourth Egyptian dynasty by order of Pharaoh Cheops
(2560 BC approximately) and its construction lasted around
20 years. It was the tallest monument of the world during
3800 years with 146 meters height. The great pyramid was

constructed using an impressive number of workers. Herodotus,
the Greek historian who made the first list of wonders,
estimated that around 100 00 workers were used to built this
colossal monument. Nevertheless, modern calculations
estimate that at least 300 000 men would have been
required for this monumental work. Previously, it was believed
that workers were slaves, but now there are modern theories
that say they were skilled workers who camped near Giza for
a salary; proof of this fact are workers' cemeteries found by
archeologists in the vicinity of Giza . It is believed also that
around 2 millions blocks (each block weights between 2 and 15
tons) of limestone, basalt and granite were used in the
pyramid

The Great Pyramid of Giza

It is the only Egyptian pyramid that has both descending and
ascending passages. The most popular theory about the goal
of the pyramids says, they were used as tombs for pharaohs.
But, we know that airshafts were built into the King's and
Queen's chambers; nevertheless we don’t know the purpose of
airshafts; since pharaoh’s mummies don’t need air. Besides, no
mummy or remains of any kind have been found inside the
great pyramid. These are some of the reasons why many
Egyptologists and other academicians believe that pyramids
were also ceremonial and religious centers, but the
construction, date and possible symbolism of these amazing
monuments are not still completely understood. There are
several theories about the construction of the pyramids. The
most accepted of them say that the pyramid was built moving
huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into
place.
Another important detail about the pyramids is their
orientation, they are oriented 4’ west of north; some experts
believe that this peculiar orientation is due to the position of
the stars b-Ursae Minoris and z-Ursae Majoris about 3,000
years ago, thanks to this feature; some scientists date the start
of the pyramid’s construction around 2467 BC.
There are three main chambers inside the pyramid, which are
arranged centrally, through the vertical axis of the pyramid;
being the largest the lowest chamber also known as
―unfinished chamber‖, which was cut into the bedrock upon
which the pyramid was constructed. The middle chamber is
known as the ―Queen’s Chamber‖ and it is the smallest of the
three with around 25 square meters of area and 4.5 meters in
height. A peculiar detail about this chamber is that was
explored using a robot created by the German engineer

―Rudolf Gantenbrink‖. The Egyptologist ―Mark Lehner‖
believes that this chamber was designed as a ―serdab‖ a
structure used in other pyramids in Egypt.

The third chamber is the main, the King’s Chamber. It is
located at end of the lengthy series of entrance ways into the
pyramid structure. Its original measurements were 10x20x11.2
cubits (5.25x10.5x6 meters). These dimensions are consistent
with the geometric methods that used the ancient Egyptians
to determine the Golden Ratio phi. Inside the great pyramid,
there had a great number of sarcophagus and a large gallery,
which is 49x3x11 meters. This chamber contains also 2 ―air
shafts‖, which ascend out of the pyramid, directly to the
―Thuban‖ star and the ―Alnitak‖ star in the ―Orion‖
constellation. It believes that, these airshafts were used with

ceremonial purposes; since they allowed to the pharaoh’s spirit
to reach the stars.
The King’s sarcophagus is located in the King’s chamber and it
was hollowed out of a single piece of red Aswan granite. A
peculiar detail about this sarcophagus is that it is too short to
accommodate a medium height person without the bending
of the knees, but this burial technique was not used in the
ancient Egypt. Therefore, several scientists believe that the
sarcophagus was not designed to host a human body.

2.HANGING GARDENS OF
BABYLON, IRAQ

These famous gardens were one of the ancient Seven Wonders
of the World which was described by the Greek historian
Herodotus. The oldest descriptions about the gardens were
written by Greek sources like Strabo or Philo of Byzantium.
These historians described the gardens as one of the most
impressive sites of the World.
Some stories tell that the hanging gardens towered above
hundreds of feet into the air but archaeological investigations
indicate a more modest height, but still impressive to the time.
The hanging Gardens did not really ―hang ―in the exact sense
of being suspended from cables or ropes. The origin of the
name is an inexact translation of the Greek word ―kremastos‖
which mean ―hanging‖, but it means also ―overhanging‖ such
as a terrace or balcony.
The Greek Historian Strabo (first century BC) described the
gardens with these words: ―Babylon, too, lies in a plain; and the
circuit of its wall is three hundred and eighty-five stadia (an
ancient unit of distance). The thickness of its wall is thirty-two
feet; the height thereof between the towers is fifty cubits (an
ancient unit of measure); that of the towers is sixty cubits; and
the passage on top of the wall is such that four-horse chariots
can easily pass one another; and it is on this account that this
and the hanging garden are called one of the Seven Wonders

of the World. The garden is quadrangular in shape, and each
side is four plethra (an ancient unit of measure) in length. It
consists of arched vaults, which are situated, one after another,
on checkered, cube-like foundations. The checkered
foundations, which are hollowed out, are covered so deep with
earth that they admit of the largest of trees, having been
constructed of baked brick and asphalt — the foundations
themselves and the vaults and the arches. The ascent to the
uppermost terrace-roofs is made by a stairway; and alongside
these stairs there were screws, through which the water was
continually conducted up into the garden from the Euphrates
by those appointed for this purpose. For the river, a stadium in
width, flows through the middle of the city; and the garden is
on the bank of the river‖.

Another Greek historian named Diodorus Siculus tells that the
gardens were around 400 feet wide by 400 feet long and

almost 80 feet high. Garden´s height is very controversial, since
Herodotus said it was 320 feet high, but this point seems too
exaggerated
Other source described the hanging gardens as follows: "The
Hanging Garden has plants cultivated above ground level,
and the roots of the trees are embedded in an upper terrace
rather than in the earth. The whole mass is supported on stone
columns... Streams of water emerging from elevated sources
flow down sloping channels... These waters irrigate the whole
garden saturating the roots of plants and keeping the whole
area moist. Hence the grass is permanently green and the
leaves of trees grow firmly attached to supple branches... This is
a work of art of royal luxury and its most striking feature is
that the labor of cultivation is suspended above the heads of
the spectators".
History

According to Greek historians, the hanging gardens were built
by order of the king Nebuchadnezzar II around 600 BC. The
legend says that Nebuchadnezzar constructed the gardens to
please his wife Amytis the daughter of the king of the Medes.
Amytis was married with Nebuchadnezzar to create an
alliance between nations.
The homeland of Amytis was green, rugged and mountainous;
therefore when the new queen arrived to Babylon, she was
depressed because this city is over a flat sun-baked terrain. The
intention of Nebuchadnezzar was to recreate the homeland of
his wife building an artificial mountain with rooftops gardens.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Nevertheless, many modern historians doubt about the
existence of these gardens. One of the reasons to doubt is that
there are not Sumerians tablets of the Nebuchadnezzar’s time
which reference to the famous gardens. Altough there are
several descriptions of the palace and the city in the
government of this king. This fact is very bizarre, since if Greeks
wrote so much about this wonder; it would be logical that
hanging gardens’ creators write much more about them.
Besides, there are not vestiges of the gardens in the
archaeological excavations realized in the location where
scientists believe, ancient Babylon was.
According to modern historians a possible explanation would
be that the soldiers of Alexander the Great were very
impressed when they saw the fertile and amazing land of
Babylon; therefore when soldiers returned to Greece; they
recounted stories about incredible gardens with palms and

trees and higher ziggurats; which inspired the imagination of
the Greek poets, who created the legend of one of the Seven
Wonders of the ancient world.
Besides, archaeological excavations in Iraq have found vestiges
of a building with vaults, but this location is quite far from the
supposed location, where Greek historians placed the gardens
on the banks of the Euphrates River.
Another theory proposes that the hanging gardens would be
constructed by Sennacherib who was king of Assyria from 705
to 681 BC and they would be located in Nineveh on the bank
of the Tigris River. Recent excavations which have found
vestiges of ancient gardens placed near the entrance to a
palace support this idea. According to this theory because of
the centuries, the real location of the gardens would have been
confused.

3.STATUE OF ZEUS AT
OLYMPIA, GREECE
It is one of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World that was
listed by Herodotus in his famous list. The statue was 12 meters
(39 feet) tall. Herodotus said that statue occupied a whole
room at western of the temple o Zeus in Olympia (about 150
Km west of Athens), the city where Greeks celebrated the
original Olympics games. The statue was made by the Greek
sculptor Phidias (who made also the statue of Athena in the
Parthenon) in honor to the king of the Greek gods and it was
the most famous master piece of art of all Greece.

The statue was an ideal representation of the best classical
style. It was made of ivory with gold plating. There are not
copies of the statue; therefore we don’t know its exactly shape.
But, the traveler Pausanias made around II century AD a
detailed description of the statue and the throne on it rested.

Besides, there are many Roman coins and engraved gems that
represents to the Zeus at Olympia.
According to the description of Pausanías, the statue was
wreathed with shoots of olive and it rested on a wonderful
throne of cedar wood, which was ornamented with ebony,
gold, precious stones and ivory. In his right hand a figure of
Victory made from ivory and gold. In his left hand, his scepter
adorned with precious metals and an eagle perched on the
scepter. The sandals and the robe of Zeus were made of gold.
History

The temple that hosted the statue was constructed from 466
to 456 BC approximately and was designed by the Greek
architect Libon who was native from Elis a town near
Olympia. This temple was built with a classic Doric style very
similar to the Parthenon in Athens.
Obviously the main piece in the temple was the statue, which
was constructed around 432 by Phidias. Greeks thought, the
statue was the incarnate god. This statue was very impressive
and it was the most important chryselephantine sculpture (a
cult statue of high status in the ancient Greece).The legend
says that Phidias was asked about what inspired him: If he
went to Olympus to see Zeus or if Zeus was under from the
Olympus to pose for Phidias. Phidias answered then that he
was inspired by one of the verses of the Iliad of Homer: ―He
spoke, the son of Kronos, and nodded his head with the dark
brows, and the immortality anointed hair of the great god
swept from his divine head, and all Olympus was shaken‖.

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia

Because of the climate in Olympia, which was so damp, the
statue required care so that the humidity would not crack the
ivory. Therefore Phidias had the responsibility of the
maintenance of the statue which was treated with oil
constantly.
In the first century Caligula ordered to transport the statue to
Rome, but this attempt failed because the scaffolding
constructed to do this work collapsed.
The statue of Zeus presided the Olympics games until 393 AD,
when the Roman emperor Theodosisus I decided to abolish the
games and close the temple, because Rome became Christian

and both temple and games were considered pagan
manifestations.
The reasons and circumstances of the destruction of the statue
are not clear. A tradition compiled by the Byzantine historian
Georgios Kedrenos says that the statue was carried to
Constantinople and was destroyed in the great fire in 475.
Another version says that it was burned with the temple in 425
AD.
Recently between 1954 and 1958, archeologists have found in
excavations in Olympia several tools and terracotta mold with
the inscription ―I belong to Phidias‖ very near location where
Pausanius said the Phidias’ workshop was. These objects have
allowed to scientists to confirm the date of statue’s creation.

Now, there are several statues that maintain the spirit of the
Zeus at Olympia, one of the most famous of them is the statue

in honor to Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln Memorial in
Washington D.C. In this statue Lincoln is depicted seated on a
huge throne as well as Zeus in the legendary statue of Olympia
The statue of the Zeus at Olympia and its history has been
from 2500 years ago, a great source of inspiration for artists of
all times and it is still now one of the most famous works of art
of the history.

4.THE COLOSSUS OF
RHODES, GREECE

This wonder of the ancient World was located in the Greek
Island of Rhodes. It was a giant statue of bronze, constructed
in the III century BC as the representation of the god Helios.
According to the legend, the Island of Rhodes was famous for
its technology advances , mainly war machines. One of the
examples of this technology was the Colossus of Rhodes. Is
believed that this statue was approximately as large as the
Statue of Liberty in New York, whose creator the French
sculptor Auguste Bartholdi was inspired by the ancient wonder
of the world.
The statue would have been located at the entrance of the
harbor of the island of Rhodes. The statue’s base was made of
white marble; the pedestal was 50 feet height (approximately
15 meters). The feet of the statue were carved in stone and
later they were covered with bronze plates riveted. The bronze
skin parts were made by workers using casts, later individual
plates of bronze were joined together by through holes made
during the molding to form a series of rings. The structure was
gradually erected and the bronze form was fortified with an
iron and stone framework. The higher parts were constructed
using an earth ramp which was built around the statue; this

ramp was removed when the colossus was finished.
Nevertheless, another theory proposes that the upper parts
were built using towers and scaffolding. Is said that The
Colossus of Rhode was 110 feet (33 m) height when was
completed.

There is a misconception about the appearance of the
Colossus. It has been believed that the statue stood in front of
the Mandraki harbor straddling its entrance. But, considering
the colossus’s height and the wide of the harbor mouth, this
image is almost impossible; this posture was a figment of
medieval imaginations based on texts, like ―over land and
sea‖. The Colossus would probably have been in an upright
position with its legs together.

History

After Alexander’s death, his generals fought for the control of
the empire. Rhodes became allied of Ptolemy who had taken
control of Egypt. Thanks to this alliance Ptolemy controlled
much of the trade in the eastern Mediterranean. But
Antigonus (one of the generals of Alexander) was upset by this
fact; therefore in 305 BC Antigonus and Demetrius (another
Alexander’s general) invaded Rhodes with 40 000 men and
besieged the city using giant catapults and Helipolis (an
enormous wheeled fortified tower, which was 50 feet square at
its base and around 100 feet tall and was armed with
catapults and sling throwers). Nevertheless, defenders of
Rhodes resisted the attacks only with 7000 men, until 304 BC
when a force of ships sent by Ptolemy arrived and defeated
Demetrius’s army saving Rhodes. The Rhodians were so
grateful; therefore they decided to build a giant statue of the
sun god Helios (Apolo) to celebrate the victory.

The statue was designed and constructed by the Rhodian
sculptor Chares of Lindos, who has been involved with large
scale statues before. The construction of the statue lasted 12
years around 282 BC. It was said that 13.6 tons of bronze and
8.2 tons of iron were used in the construction; therefore it was a
shortage of bronze in the ancient world during colossus’s
construction. Nevertheless the statue stood in Rhodes only by
56 years, since an earthquake in 226 BC destroyed the colossus
which was snapped at the knees and fell over onto land.
According to the legend Ptolemy III offered to rebuild the
statue but a Rhodian oracle was afraid that it upset Helios,
therefore the statue was never reconstructed.
Remains of the colossus were on its site around 800 years and
they impressed to the travelers that saw them. In 654 AD,
Arab forces invaded Rhodes and they sold the remains of the
statue to a salesman from Edessa, who transported the bronze
scrap to his home using 900 camels.
In 1989 media reports suggested that some big stones on the
seabed of the Rhodes’s coast could have been remains of the
famous statue, but some time later this theory was absolutely
discarded.

5.THE LIGHTHOUSE OF
ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT

This wonder of the ancient World was located in the island of
Pharos just off the coast of the city of Alexandria in Egypt. The
great Lighthouse served to guide the sailors that traveled to
the city founded by Alexander the Great.
The Lighthouse of Alexandria worked by 15 centuries and it
was the last of the six lost wonders of the ancient world that
disappeared. It was one of the greatest architectural feats of
the antiquity.
Besides, the Lighthouse was the only wonder that was
constructed with practical purposes; since it helped seafaring
ships to find the harbor safely. The lighthouse served also as a
military lookout for approaching enemy ships and a tourist
balcony, because it had two observation platforms.

The Lighthouse had two beacons near its summit. At night a
great bonfire generated the light and during the day a great
mirror made with a concave disc of polished metal, reflected
and directing the sun rays. The colossal building was
constructed with large blocks of light colored stone and it was
composed by 3 basic structural elements: a rectangular base,
an octagonal midsection and a cylindrical upper section where
the beacons were. Access to the entrance was up a long
vaulted ramp, from which a spiral staircase led up to many
chambers which were used probably by beasts of burden to
carry fuel for the fire of the beacons. According to ancient
stories the lighthouse could be seen from up 35 miles (56 Km)
away and according other legends, the light of the beacons

could burn enemy ships, but this legend is very difficult to
believe.
It believes that the Lighthouse was between 330 and 600 feet
(100 – 180 m) height and it was the highest building of the
world except the Great Pyramid of Giza. Some texts
mentioned a statue which was placed at top of the lighthouse
and a poet named Poseidipos of Pella who lived in Alexandria
in the III century BC, wrote talking about a statue depicted
Zeus the Savior which was accompanied by Poseidon the Lord
of the Sea
History

The construction of the Lighthouse probably started in the III
century BC by order of the governor Ptolemy I Soter who was
one of the generals of Alexander the Great and the first ruler
of Greek origin. The construction of the impressive building was
finished by the son of the Hellenic general Ptolemy
Philadelphos around 285 BC.

Replica of the Lighthouse of Alexandria

The designer and constructor of the Lighthouse was the
architect Sostratus who was forbidden by Ptolemy to put his
name on his work as it was traditional. Nevertheless, the
architect wrote an inscription on the base’s walls:‖Sostratos of
Dexiphanes the Cnidian to Saviour Gods for the seafarers‖. The
inscription was hidden under plaster layer, covered by another
inscription in honor to Ptolemy; but after some centuries the
plaster off and the name of the architect was revealed.
During its three first centuries the Lighthouse was used mainly
with practical purposes. By the first century AD in the Roman
time the Lighthouse served mainly as a landmark or day
beacon.
In 796 the Lighthouse would have lost its upper storey and 100
years later the sultan Toulun (868-884) built a domed mosque
on the summit. By 950 several cracks began to appear in the
walls of the tower.
The Lighthouse dominated the Harbor during many centuries,
in 1183 the Muslim traveler Ibn Jubayr visited Alexandria and
described the Lighthouse thus: ―Description of it falls short, the
eyes fail to comprehend it, and words are inadequate, so vast
is the spectacle‖.
Unfortunately two earthquakes in 1303 and 1323 damaged
seriously the tower; according to the Arab traveler Ibn Battuta,
in this time, it could not enter into the ruins of the Lighthouse.
In 1480 the remains of the Lighthouse finally disappeared, since
the Sultan of Egypt Qaitbay, used several stones of the Pharos
to build a fort, therefore several stone blocks of the Lighthouse
can be seen in the walls of the Fort Qaitbey, these stone blocks

are clearly visible because of their big size compare to the
other blocks of the walls.
Recently in 1994 a scuba-diving expedition leaded by the
archeologist Jean Yves Empereur found many blocks belonged
to a great building submerged in the seafloor of the harbor of
Alexandria. Probably these blocks were part of the legendary
Lighthouse. Nevertheless, many academicians think that these
blocks belonged to other buildings because the original blocks
of the Lighthouse would have been recycled to build other
constructions as usually Egyptians did.

6.THE MOUSOLEUM OF
MAUSSOLLOS, TURKEY

The famous tomb of the king Maussollos of Halicarnassus
known as the Mausoleum of Maussollo , which served as tomb
for the satrap (a local governor) of the Persian empire and his
wife (who was also his sister) was considered by the ancient
Greeks one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
The tomb was a rectangular building of around 120 feet (40
m) for 100 feet (30 m). The tomb was erected on a hill
overlooking the city. The building was in an enclosed patio in
whose center was a stone platform on which the Mausoleum
sat. There, had a beautiful staircase flanked by stone lions
which led to the top of the platform. Many statues of gods and
goddess ornamented the outer walls. Each corner of the tomb
was guarded by statues of warriors mounted on horseback.

At the center of the platform was the tomb itself, which was
made of marble. The Mausoleum was around 140 feet height.
The tomb was covered by sculptures in reliefs that showed
scenes of the Greek history and mythology, such as the battle
of the Centaurs with the Lapiths or scenes of battles of the
mythical Amazons.
Thirty-six slim columns (9 for side) adorned the four sides of the
tomb, between each 2 columns, there had a statue; behind
columns was a solid block which supported the weight of the
great roof. The roof was the shape of a staggered pyramid.
Perched at top of the tomb four horses pulling a chariot in
which images of Mausolus and his queen rode.
History

The famous tomb of the governor of Halicarnassus was finished
around 350 BC. Mausollos of Caria was the governor of the
region of Caria from 377 to 353 BC and he moved the capital
of the kingdom of Caria to Halicarnassus. Really, the

construction of the tomb of the ancient king was not idea of
him. The great project was created and ordered by the wife
and sister of Mausollos, Artemisia.
The construction of the tomb began when Mausollos was still
alive. Artemisia sent messengers to Greece to find the most
talented artists of the time amongst them Scopas (who had
supervised the reconstruction of the Temple of Artemis in
Ephesus), Bryaxis, Timotheus and Leochardes. Each one was
responsible for one side of the tomb.

Reconstruction of the Mausoleum in the
British Museum

After Mausollos’s death, Rhodes an island which was
conquered by Mausollos rebelled against Haicarnassus. But
Artemisia defeated to the Rhodians. The queen lived some
years more after death of his husband. But when she died his
body was buried together Mausollos in the tomb that she
ordered to build, despite the splendid tomb was not yet
finished. According to the Greek historian Pliny, after
Artemisia’s death, the craftsmen decided to stay and conclude
the tomb because they considered that it was at once a
memorial of his own fame and of the sculptor's art.
The mausoleum was untouched by many years. It survived the
invasion of Alexander the Great in 334 BC and pirate’s attacks
in 62 BC. For 16 centuries the tomb remained in good
condition. But an earthquake damaged the roof and several
columns. At the beginning of the XV century during crusades
the Knights of St. John from Malta invaded the region and they
used the stones of the Mausoleum to build the great castle of
Bodrum where many of the statues that ornamented the
tomb were carried. In 1522 almost all blocks of the ancient
wonder had been disassembled and used to construct other
buildings. Today some sections of polished marble from the
Mausoleum can still be seen in the Bodrum castle.
In the XIX century many statues were carried from the castle to
the British Museum. In 1852 Charles Thomas Newton a British
archeologist searched the location of the mausoleum. He
found a staircase and three corners of the foundation as well as
sections of the reliefs and the roof. Finally he found the statues
of Mausolus and Artemisia. Today most works of art found in
these excavations can be seen in the Mausoleum Room in the
British Museum.

Some modern buildings were inspired by the Mausoleum like
the Grant´s Tomb in New York, Los Angeles City Hall, the
Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, the House of the
Temple in Washington DC, the Indiana War Memorial or the
St. George’s Church Bloombury in London.

7.THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS,
TURKEY

This wonder of the ancient world is also known as the Temple
of Diana. The temple was located in Ephesus an ancient Greek
city around 50 Km from the actual city of Izmir in the territory
that today occupies Turkey.
The temple was dedicated to Artemis the Greek goddess, the
virginal huntress and twin of Apollo, who occupied the place of
Titan Selene as Goddess of the Moon.
This deity was passionately venerated as an archaic pre-
Hellenic icon. The original statue that represented to Artemis
was carved in wood. The statue had many breasts which
denoted her fertility, rather than the virginity that Hellenic
Artemis assumed.

The Greek Artemis was a little different from the Artemis that
was adored in Ephesus. The Ephesus’s goddess was a deity of
the fertility; whereas the Greek Artemis was traditionally the
goddess of the hunt. Therefore, it believes that the cult to the
Artemis of Ephesus began several centuries before the Hellenic
period. Probably the worship to Artemis derived from the
ancient worship that Ephesians gave to Cybele.
The temple was built, destroyed and reconstructed many times
since Bronze Age. But the temple that was listed as one of the
Seven Wonders of the World was a project of 120 years which
was started by Croesus of Lydia.

Antipater of Sidon described the temple using the following
words: ―I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is
a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and
the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge
labor of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus;
but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the
clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, Lo,
apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught
(anything) so grand‖.
Pliny was who described the temple with more detail.
According to his description the temple was 377 feet (115 m)
long and 180 feet (55m) wide, with an area three times as
large the Parthenon in Athens. It was made mainly of marble
and was enclosed in colonnades of 127 Ionics columns, each
column was 60 feet (18 m) height. The temple was always
surrounded by priests and priestesses, musicians, dancers and
acrobats.
History

The sacred shrine of Artemis was very old and it was an
important religious centre many centuries before the temple
that was considered one of the wonders was built. There are
ancient Greek stories which attributed the origin of the worship
to Artemis in Ephesus to the legendary Amazons. Archeological
excavations realized before World War I discovered three
successive temples overlying one another on the site.
However, the construction of temple which was listed as one of
the wonders was started around 550 BC, by the Cretan
architect Chersiphron and his son by order of the King of Lydia
Croesus. A new statue of the goddess was sculpted by Endoios

as well as a naiskos (a small temple with columns or pillars and
a triangular structure named pediment above the horizontal
structure) to house the goddess.

Remains of the Temple of Artemis
in Ephesus

The temple had more than 1000 items of cult like sculptures of
famous artists such as Polyclitus, Pheidias, Phradmon and
Cresilas. Most sculptures represented Amazons who according
the legend founded Ephesus. Today, some fragments of the
bas-reliefs that ornamented the amazing columns of the
temple are preserved in the British Museum. Because of its
location at an important economically zone, the temple was
since ancient times a tourist attraction, visited by pilgrims,
merchants, kings, who offered to the goddess jewelry and other
goods.

According to the story, the temple was destroyed on July 21 356
BC by Herostratus who realized this barbarian act finding
fame at any cost. According the legend the same night that
the temple was burned, Alexander the Great was born.
Plutarch said that Artemis was too preoccupied with
Alexander’s delivery to save her temple. Therefore, Alexander
offered to rebuild the temple, but Ephesians refused.
Nevertheless, after Alexander’s death the temple was restored
in 323 BC.
The temple was destroyed again by Goths in 262 but Ephesians
rebuild the temple again. According the biblical book Acts of
John (II century), the apostle prayed publicly in the Temple of
Artemis exorcizing its demons and ―of a sudden the altar of
Artemis split in many pieces… and half the temple fell down‖
instantly many Ephesians became Christians. By IV century,
most Ephesians were Christians and in 391 all pagan temples
were closed by order of Roman Emperor Theodosius. Finally
the temple was destroyed in 401 by a group of people leaded
by St. John Chrysostom. Most stones of the temple were used to
build other buildings like the famous Hagia Sophia.
The temple’s site was rediscovered in 1869 thanks to an
archaeological expedition sponsored by the British Museum. At
the beginning of the XX century, some fragments of sculpture
from the IV century were found, which have been used to
rebuild an image of the temple in the ―Ephesus Room‖ of the
British Museum. In the ancient location of the temple now only
there is a single column constructed with several fragments
found on the site.

These were the ancient wonders of the world. But today
they are either distroyed or there are only their remains
left because of the earthquakes, and other climatical
conditions. Hence a new wonders organization was
found.
The New 7 Wonders Foundation is a private
organization established in 2001, which is dedicated to
investing in good causes related with the monument
preservation and reconstruction around the world.
This organization prepared a global contest on Internet
whose goal was to find the New Seven Wonders of the
World. This election was made through a global vote on
its website. Finally, on July 07, 2007 the election’s results
were announced and these are the proclaimed New
Seven Wonders of the World:

1.MACHU PICHU
Machu Picchu is located on a remote secondary road in nearly
impassable terrain high above the Urubamba River, Machu
Picchu sits nearly 2438 meters (8000 feet) above sea level, on
top of a ridge between two peaks of different size. The name
"Machu Picchu" comes simply from its geography. It literally
means "old peak", just as "Huaynapicchu" is "young peak". The
more accurate translation relates, however, to the concept of
size, with Machu Picchu as the "bigger peak" and
Huaynapicchu, the "smaller peak".
Machu Picchu, the most famous citadel of the Incas, is
accessible by train from Cusco or traveling along the Camino
Inca. The city was never discovered by the conquerors Spanish
and remained lost for centuries. Machu Picchu is an
architectural jewel, which combine perfectly the architectural
style with the beautiful natural environment that surrounded
it. The Beauty and the Mystery of its walled ruins that once
was the palace the thinnest Inca of stone surrounded by the
virginal landscapes, the flora and green jungle bathes its
abrupt topography.

The citadel is divided into two sectors: the agricultural and the
urban, where there are main squares, temples, palaces,
storehouses, workshops, stairways, cables and water fountains
which run through both sectors, which measure 20 and 10
hectares respectively. Machu Picchu was built according to its
natural surroundings, with its constructions following the
natural curves and dips and rises in the land.
The sector is surrounded by a series of terraces of different
types and sizes which had two main functions: to grow crops
and halt the erosion caused by the rains. The most eye
catching terraces lie at the entrance to the citadel. They begin
at the cluster of rooms located at the entrance and climb up to
the top of the mountain until they stop at a large rectangular
room. There are no canals as they were not necessary, as the
constant rains and ever-present humidity allowed the plants to
grow without irrigation. The only water channel that flows
through the urban sector crosses through the central terrace.

The control gate is made up of a three walled room with a
view with several windows, which can be found in front of the
main gateway. There is a good panorama from here of the
agricultural and urban sectors and the surrounding landscape.
In the upper part, they also found sculpted stones that belong
to the area, which indicated the Incas used the stones to make
offerings to their gods. On this same piece of ground lies a
granite boulder sculpted with steps. But the most striking
feature is that it is pierced with a ring, the purpose of which is
unknown.
One can see a long stairway that leads to the front gate. This
sector houses the most important constructions of any Inca city,
where one can appreciate the talent, effort and quality of the
pre Hispanic builders, as the constructions are entirely made of
granite, a very hard rock that is different from that used in
Cusco. The city is U-shaped and containing the temples, houses
and workshops on platform terraces that the american
scientist Bingham, called the Military Group.
The Temple of Sun is shaped like a semi-circle and built on
solid rock, an existing granite block shaped to blend with the
natural curves, with a diameter of 10.50 meters. The
Intiwatana is located on a hill made up of several terraces, it is
a granite rock sculpted into three steps. In the central part one
can see a rectangular prism that is 36cm high and which is
pointing from North-West to South-East. Its four corners are
directed to the four cardinal points. The Intiwatana had
specific functions: it measured time (the solstice and the
equinox) by using sunlight and shadow, and also served as an
altar. In Quechua, "Inti" means "sun" and "Wata" means "year",
thereby giving us the meaning of a solar year observatory.

The sacred rock, located in a four-sided spot flanked by two
three-sided rooms, features a monolithic rock sculpture. The
pedestal, which is approximately 30cm high, resembles a
feline. From another angle, it looks like the profile of a
mountain near Machu Picchu. The Temple of Three Windows is
located west of the main square, has a large rectangular floor.
The enormous polyhedrons have been carved and joined with
millimetric precision.
The Main Temple is located north of the Sacred Square, very
near the Temple of Three Windows. Doors are a common sight
in Machupicchu and especially in this sector. They vary in
texture, size and architectural style that set them apart from
each other, although all have the same trapezoid shape. To
the South of the complex, between the Temple of the Sun and
the Royal Palace, the area houses a series of water fountains,
the only sources of the vital element for the residents of Machu
Picchu.
There are four main squares at different levels, but share the
characteristic of being rectangular in the classic Inca style,
interconnected by sunken stairways in the parameters of the
terraces. The main square is the largest, which just like the
main squares in all Inca cities had religious and social functions.
History

Machu Picchu was done constructed and used by Inka
Pachakuteq, that was the greatest statesman of the
Tawantinsuyo, Pachakuteq ruled from 1438 for 1471, called the
great age of the Inca empire; unfortunately it lasted less than
100 years, because the empire collapsed under the Spanish
invasion. Although the citadel is located only about 50 miles

from Cusco, Machu Picchu, it was never found and destroyed
by the Spanish, as were many other Inca sites.
In the XIX century explorers like Eugenie de Sartiges, George
Ephraim Squire, Antonio Raimondi and Castelnau never
reached Machu Picchu, although most of them crossed the
Andes to the almost inaccessible ruins of Choquekirau, built
high above the Apurimac River. In fact, the outside world
simply stumbled upon Machu Picchu, for it had never been lost
to those who lived around it.
In December 1908, Bingham attended the First Panamerican
Scientific Congress in Santiago, Chile. It was there that he
decided to follow the old Spanish trade route from Buenos
Aires to Lima, and it was to that end that he traveled to Lima
and hence to Cusco. In Cusco Bingham made the
acquaintance of one J.J. Nunez, then prefect of the Apurimac
region, who invited him on the arduous trip to the ruins of
Choquekirau.

Machu Picchu
On his return to the USA, Bingham decided to organize
another expedition to Peru. Bingham returned to Cusco from
where he journeyed on foot and by mule through the
Urubamba Valley, past Ollantaytambo, and on into the
Urubamba gorge. On July 23, Bingham and his party camped
by the river at a place called Mandor Pampa, where they
aroused the curiosity of Melchor Arteaga, a local farmer who
leased the land there. Bingham learned from Arteaga that
there were extensive ruins on top of the ridge opposite the
camp, which Arteaga, in his native Quechua, called Machu
Picchu, or "Old Mountain". Bingham offered to pay Arteaga
well if he showed the ruins. He demurred and said it was too
hard a climb for such a wet day, accompanied only by
Seargeant Carrasco and Arteaga, Bingham left the camp.

From the river they climbed a precipitous slope until they
reached the ridge at around midday.
Here Bingham rested at a small hut where they enjoyed the
hospitality of a group of peasants. They told him that they had
been living there for about four years and explained that they
had found an extensive system of terraces on whose fertile soil
they had decided to grow their crops. Bingham was then told
that the ruins he sought were close by and he was given a
guide, the 11-year old Pablito Alvarez, to lead him there.
Almost immediately, he was greeted by the sight of a broad
sweep of ancient terraces. They numbered more than a
hundred and had recently been cleared of forest and
reactivated. Here young Pablito began to reveal to Bingham
a series of white granite walls which the historian immediately
judged to be the finest examples of masonry that he had ever
seen.
According to Bingham, "I had entered the marvellous canyon
of the Urubamba below the Inca fortress. Here the river
escapes from the cold plateau by tearing its way through
gigantic mountains of granite. The road runs through a land of
matchless charm. It has the majestic grandeur of the Canadian
Rockies, as well as the startling beauty of the Nuuanu Pali
near Honolulu, and the enchanting views of the Koolau Ditch
Trail on Maui, in my native land…..‖
Machu Picchu, the ancient Inca City was named to be part of
the new list of the Seven Wonders. The global vote that began
in 1999, accumulated near 20 million votes in its initial phase.
And the final decision on July 7, 2007 in Lisbon, Portugal to
name to Machupicchu one of the New Seven Wonders of the

Contemporary World for satisfaction of the Cusqueño town
(Cusco's people). Machu Picchu is today the main archeological
site of Peru and America, and probably the most beautiful
place of the world.

2. CHICHEN ITZA, MEXICO
The famous Mayan pyramids of Chichen Itza (chee-chehn eet-
sah) in Maya literally means: "Mouth of the well of the Itza",
the name Chichen Itza is a Mayan word: CHI (mouth), CHEN
(well) and ITZA (of the Itza tribe), it is located a 75 miles east
of Merida, the Capital of the State of Yucatan, Mexico. This
archaeological site is rated among the most important of the
Maya culture and covers an area of approximately six square
miles.
The architectural characteristics of Chichen Itza and that have
a direct relationship with the Mayan Toltec style are: "El juego
de la Pelota", "El Castillo", "El Grupo de las Mil Columnas", "El
tzompantli", El Edificio de las Aguilas", "El templo de los
Guerrerros", and "El Mercado". All of these buildings have the
same decoration motives found in Tula. The most frequent
representations are warriors and Quetzalcoatl.
The main attraction is the central pyramid, a square-based,
stepped pyramid that is approximately 75 feet tall, El Castillo
de la Serpiente Emplumada, which means "Castle of the
Plumed Serpent," and is pictured at the top. The plumed
serpent is a popular deity in various Mesoamerican cultures. "El
Castillo" is surely the place where the ceremony of the descent
of Kukulkan was held. The pyramid has special astronomical
layout so that a game of light and shadow is formed. On
March 21st the body of the serpent metaphorically descends
from the temple on top of the pyramid and arrives at the
heads at the foot of the staircase.

Just beyond El Castillo you will find a large ball court where
Mayan men played a game called pok ta pok. Anthropologists
believe that the object of the game was to hurl a ball through
a ring that was mounted on a wall, seven meters above the
ground. The largest Ball Game in Mesoamerica is 168 meters in
length and 70 meters in width.
The Temple of Chac Mool, upon whose walls and interior pillars
there are richly colored carvings of plumed serpents, warriors,
and priests. The upper building only partially reflects its true
grandeur. There are three sculpted masks with extremely long
noses on the outer walls and at the corners. On the inner walls
of the vaults there were murals with scenes of war and daily
life. The altar tables and benches may have served as seats
and thrones for dignitaries.
In the "Templo de los Guerreros" there is a temple on the top
part where the entrance columns are typically Toltec. Another
one of the buildings that have a Toltec seal without is the
"Muro de los Craneos". These buildings were destined to be the
mausoleums of the tying up the years. Every 52 years the
ancient Mayans and other cultures would tie up a sheaf of
years to end a cycle. Platform of Venus or of the Dance, Sacred
Well or the Well of the Sacrifices, Tzompantli, that displays
figures of skulls in relief.
In the Central Group of the Ruins you can find:
The Red House or Chichan Chob, the name of this building,
situated upon a high platform, is derived from the fragments
of red paint that were found in its interior. The word "Chichan
Chob" means "small holes" and probably alludes to its Lime
roof comb. The structure is comprised of an antechamber and

three rooms and has a sculptured hieroglyphic inscription in the
main chamber. The building must have had a religious and
public use, since there is a Ball Court joined to its eastern side,
with bas-reliefs in the Maya-Toltec style.

The Caracol or Observatory This structure is known as the
Observatory due to its shape and some possible astral
associations, since astronomical events concerning the planet
Venus and the setting of the sun during the three windows in
the upper section. The name "Caracol" (conch) comes from the
spiral stairs that lead to the upper part of the building.
The Church, This small building with only one chamber owes its
name to its proximity to the so called "convent" of the Nunnery
and to the exuberant decoration on its upper facade, which
rises even higher due to its lofty roof comb. One can observe
large areas covered with the original stucco on the Grecian
frets of the central panel. "Bignosed" masks constitute the main

element of the facade, with a seated figure, god or ancestor
integrated upon the nose of the central mask. There also are
figures of the four carriers of the corners of the sky, "bacabes"
or "pauahtunes", kneeling in the side panels. It’s appearing
that the builder had certain difficulties in placing the three
large masks rescued from earlier buildings on the roof comb
and opted to suppress detail. Up to now, it is not known what
the function of this building was, and in spite of the overloaded
decoration of the building, it is one of the best architectural
examples of the Puuc style in Chichen Itza.
Temple of the Carved Panels, the name of this building comes
from the relieves carved on the north and south walls of the
colonnade, depicting scenes of numerous people, plants, and
animals, both real and imaginary, which are dominated by
two warriors. The building is made up of a temple erected on
a slab foundation with a colonnade in front of it. The offerings
discovered during exploration of the fire - related rituals.
All areas can be seen comfortably in one day. Also you should
enjoy the wonderful Light and Sound Show that is held every
evening. At the entrance to Chichen Itza, there is an
informative museum, a dining room, clean restrooms, a few
gift shops and vendor stands.
History

Chichen Itza was first populated between 500 and 900 AD by
Mayans and for some reason abandoned around 900; the city
was then resettled 100 years later and subsequently invaded
by Toltecs from the North. There are numerous relieves of both
Mayan gods including Chac and the Toltec gods including
Quetzacoatl. For some reason the city was abandoned around

1300. If the Spanish did not make it a policy to kill all of the
Mayan priests and burn books when they arrived in Mexico,
we would all have a few more answers.
The ruins are divided into two groups. One group belongs to
the classic Maya Period and was built between the 7th and
10th centuries A.D., at which time the city became a
prominent ceremonial center. The other group corresponds to
the Maya Toltec Period, from the later part of the 10th century
to the beginning of the 13th century A.D. This area includes the
Sacred Well and most of the outstanding ruins.

Chichen Itza
When Chichen-Itza was first settled it was largely agricultural.
Because of the many cenotes in the area, it would have been a
good place to settle. During the Central Phase of the Classic
Period, referred to as Florescence, (625-800 A.D.) arts and

sciences flourished here. It was at this time that Chichen-Itza
became a religious center of increasing importance, evidenced
by the buildings erected: the Red House, the House of the
Deer, the Nunnery and its Annex, the Church, the Akab Dzib,
the Temple of the Three Lintels and the House of Phalli.
Toward the end of the Classic Period, from 800 to 925 A.D.,
the foundations of this magnificent civilization weakened, and
the Maya abandoned their religions centres and the rural land
around them. New, smaller centres were built and the great
cities like Chichen Itza were visited only to perform religious
rites or bury the dead. The Itza people abandoned their city by
the end of the 7th century A.D. and lived on the west coast of
the peninsula for about 250 years. However, by the 10th
century A.D. they returned to Chichen Itza.
Around 1000 A.D. the Itza allied themselves with two powerful
tribes, Xio and Cocom, both claiming to be descendants of the
Mexicans. This alliance was favourable to the Itza for about
two centuries. During this time, the people of Chichen Itza
added to the site by constructing magnificent buildings
bearing the touch of Toltec art: porches, galleries, colonnades
and carvings depicting serpents, birds and Mexican gods.
The Toltec influenced the Itza in more ways than just
architecture. They also imposed their religion on the Itza, which
meant human sacrifice on a large scale. They expanded their
dominions in northern Yucatan with an alliance with Mayapan
and Uxmal. As the political base of Chichen Itza expanded, the
city added even more spectacular buildings: the Observatory,
Kukulkan's Pyramid, the Temple of the Warriors, The Ball
Court, and The Group of the Thousand Columns. The Temple
of the Warriors has pillars sculptured in bas-relief, which have

retained much of their original colour. Murals once adorned its
walls. It is surrounded by numerous ruined buildings known as
the Group of a Thousand Columns. In 1194, Mayapan broke the
alliance and subdued Chichen and Uxmal. The city was
gradually abandoned.

3.CHRIST THE REDEEMER,
BRAZIL
The statue of Christ the Redeemer is located at the top of
Corcovado Mountain. The entire monument of statue of Christ
the Redeemer is 38m high with the statue accounting for 30m
and overlooking the city of Rio de Janeiro is one of the tallest
statues in the world; the span from finger tip to fingertip is 28m
and there is a small chapel housed in the base.
The reason why it was built was to show that Christ loves all. In
Portuguese, this iconic monument is known as Cristo Redentor.
Christ the Redeemer was designed by a French sculptor by the
name of Paul Landowski and a local engineer named Heitor
da Silva Costa was chosen to supervise the entire construction.
The statue was built not out of steel but from reinforced
concrete as that was considered a more suitable material for
the cross shaped statue. The external caps of the idol were
constructed in soapstone due to the resistance of this material
to the extreme time and also due to its malleability.

The statue of Christ the Redeemer can be accessed by the 2.4
meter Corcovado Railway that has the capacity to hold 360
passengers every hour. The trip by rail is approximately 20
minutes and leaves the base each half hour. From the road or
the train terminal Christ the Redeemer statue is reached by
222 steps. For those not wishing to make the arduous trek up
the mountain, reaching the statue is possible by escalators and
elevators.
Christ the Redeemer is one of the tourist attractions that every
year attracts to more and more visitors. The best time to visit
the Christ the Redeemer statue is late afternoon or evening
when you can enjoy the splendour of the setting sun while
taking in one of the most important landmarks in the world.
History

The history brings over of the construction of Christ's Redeemer
statue begins in the century XVI, when the Portuguese gave
the name of ―Corcovado Mountain‖, to one of its more
impressive mountains an allusive name to its form hump.

In 1924, Don Pedro personally drove to the first official
expedition to the Corcovado Mountain, this expedition end
with the opening of an accessible raise to the above mentioned
mountain. Then in 1859 the father Vincentian Pedro Maria Boss
came to Rio de Janeiro and was struck by the mysterious
beauty of the Corcovado Mountain and suggested the
construction of a religious monument in honour of Princess
Isabel, who in 1921 gave way for the idea of a great statue of
Christ.

Christ the Redeemer
From 1859 to 1921, Don Pedro gave his consent for the building
of the Corcovado Railroad line between Cosme Velho and

Paineiras. After a hard competition, the project by the
engineer Heitor da Silva Costa is chosen and in September, a
national fundraising campaign for the works is organized.
Finally, in 1927, the construction of the statue begins after
models of diverse sizes had been constructed. All calculations
were done by Coast Hisses, helped by Pedro Viana and Heitor
Levy, which during the years of construction, resided in a shed
of wood at the foot of the monument.
All the necessary work material and workers who participated
in the construction of the Christ statue were transported to
Corcovado by the trains from the railroad that links the street
Cosme Velha, which today functions as a tourist train to the
top. The train was the first in Brazil appointed exclusively to
transportation of tourists and also the first train to work by
electricity.
The monument was inaugurated on October 12, 1931. The final
design of the monument was of the artist Carlos Oswald and
the person in charge of realizing the sculptress was the
Frenchman Paul Landowskitura. The monument to Christ, the
Redeemer on the Corcovado Mountain is one of the biggest
déco sculptures in the world. Up to today, several reforms have
been completed to assure the quality of the Christo Redeemer.
Lighting has been added, and the latest renewal of September
2002 is the addition of a panoramic elevator and motorized
staircase to ease the difficulty for elderly persons.

4. THE GREAT WALL OF
CHINA, CHINA
The Great Wall of China is a series of stone and earthen
fortifications in China, built, rebuilt, and maintained between
the 5th century BC and the 16th century to protect the
northern borders of the Chinese Empire during the rule of
successive dynasties.
The steps that form the Great Wall of China are very steep
and tall in some areas. Tourists often become exhausted
climbing the wall and walk no more than a kilometre or two
(around a mile). In some areas the blocks were cemented with
a mixture of glutinous rice and egg white. In the extreme
western desert locations, where good materials are scarce, the
wall was constructed from dirt rammed between rough wood
tied together with woven mats.

The Wall is included in lists of the "Seven Medieval Wonders of
the World" but was of course not one of the classical Seven
Wonders of the World recognized by the ancient Greeks.It is
the world's longest human made structure, stretching over

approximately 6,400 km from Shanhaiguan in the east to Lop
Nur in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the
southern edge of Inner Mongolia, but stretches to over 6,700
km in total. It is also the largest human made structure ever
built in terms of surface area and mass.
Three sections are in Beijing municipality, which was renovated
and which is regularly visited by modern tourists. One of the
most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs
extremely steep slopes. It runs 11 kilometres long, ranges from 5
to 8 meters in height, and 6 meters across the bottom,
narrowing up to 5 meters across the top. Wangjinglou is one of
Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, 980 meters above sea level.
South East of Jinshanling, is the Mutianyu Great Wall which
winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to
the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers. It is
connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to
the east. Another notable section lies near the eastern
extremity of the wall, where the first pass of the Great Wall
was built on the Shanhaiguan, the first mountain the Great
Wall climbs. Jia Shan is also here, as is the Jiumenkou, which is
the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge.
History

The construction of the Great Wall China began in the 7th
century B.C., under the Dynasty Zhou. This wall was
constructed along many hundreds of years. The first version of
the wall was constructed to support invaders far from the
villages that cultivate the land for the Chinese border. These
walls were constructed in weak points in the natural landscape
or where the threat was perceived like the major one.

Some of these walls eventually became of greater strategic
importance when the localised defences were gradually joined
to form the Great Wall of China. At those times that the
Chinese territory expanded northward, earlier walls became
secondary defences when a more northerly wall was built. The
Great Wall of China was built by soldiers, civilians, farmers and
prisoners, primarily during three dynasties: the Qin, the Han
and the Ming, although the Sui Dynasty and the Ten Kingdoms
period also played a part. The building styles of each dynasty
added their own flavour and advanced the techniques learned
from the previous.

The Great Wall of China
The first dynasty of China was the short lived Qin Dynasty. The
first emperor, Qin ShiHuang, was a tyrannical emperor who
unified China by force and set about constructing one Great

Wall by joining. He even sent scholars to work on the Great
Wall, anyone who was deemed unproductive. These workers
faced arduous labor, and the constant danger of being
attacked by bandits.
Most of early Great Wall was composed of weak stone, but
when the natural stone in an area was not sufficient did that
the engineers were turning to another method, there had to
be used a rectangular frame that was filled with loose soil. This
soil was trampled for several hours by a team of workers until
this was solid. This process of landfill and to trample would be
repeated again and again until the wall was reaching the
wished height.
The second dynasty to add to the Great Wall was the Han
Dynasty. The most notable contribution of the Han Dynasty is
that they extended the Great Wall westwards through the
Gobi Desert. Despite a lack of building materials, ingenious
Chinese engineers found a solution. This method involved first
laying down a layer of willow reeds, possibly woven. Then a
layer of gravel and a little water was applied and trampled
solid. After the trampling, a new layer of reeds and gravel was
added. This process would be repeated until the desired height
was reached. Amazingly, some portions of this Great Wall are
still standing, partly due to the dry conditions of the Gobi.
The last dynasty to build a northern wall was the Ming
Dynasty (1368-1644). This dynasty built the biggest, longest,
strongest and most ornate Great Wall ever. These are the walls
that we are familiar with today. Their methods of Great Wall
building fused all that was learned by the two previous
dynasties. First, a center of trampled earth was created. Then,
around the firm center was applied a shell of stone and bricks.

The bricks that were created by the Ming are so strong that
they compare well with the ones we use today. The strong
Ming wall was built across some of the most dangerous terrains
in China, including steep mountains, sometimes on 75 degree
inclines. It has been said that every foot of the construction of
this Great Wall cost one human life.
The Ming Dynasty Great Wall starts on the eastern end at
ShanHai Pass, near QinHuangDao, in Hebei Province, next to
Bohai Sea. It once spanned 9 provinces and 100 counties, but
the final 500 kilometers of the Great Wall to the west have all
but turned to rubble. Along the Ming Great Wall of China
there are many watchtowers, spaced from less than a
kilometer to several kilometers or more apart. These were
partly used to transmit military messages. Fire and smoke
were the most efficient means for communication; fire was
used at night and smoke during the day. Straw and dung was
used for this. In 1468, a series of regulations set specific
meanings to these signals: a single shot and a single fire or
smoke signal implied about 100 enemies, two signals warned
of 500, three warned of over a 1000 and so on. In this way, a
message could be transmitted over more than 500 km of the
Great Wall within a few hours.

5.PETRA, JORDAN
Petra is approximately at 3-5 hours to the south of modern
Amman, approximately 2 hours to the north of Aqaba, on the
edges of the mountain desert of the Wadi Araba. The city is
surrounded by the highest hills of rust by colored sandstone
that gives a natural protection to the city against the invaders.
Petra has more than 800 individual monuments, including
buildings, tombs, baths, funeral corridors, temples, arched
income, and adjacent streets, which especially were carved in
the kaleidoscopic sandstone by the technical and artistic genius
of their inhabitants. Petra's monuments are best seen by the
visitors at early hours of the morning and last hour of the
evening, when the Sun warms the multicoloured stones.
The site is semi arid, the friable sandstone which allowed the
Nabataeans to carve their temples and tombs into the rock
crumbling easily to sand. The colour of the rock ranges from
pale yellow or white through rich reds to the darker brown of
more resistant rocks. The contorted strata of different-coloured
rock form whorls and waves of colour in the rock face, which
the Nabataeans exploited in their architecture.
Petra was chosen as the capital of the Nabateans because it
was located in a valley surrounded by Sandstone Mountains.
There are many ways to get into Petra, but none of them are
easy, and if the valleys are sealed, it is almost impossible for
anyone to enter.

The main entrance to Petra is called the Siq; it has sides as high
as 200 m. This gorge and the temple in the end of it (the
Kazneh) were popularized in the movie Indiana Jones and the
Last Crusade. Of all 800 tombs carved in Petra, the Kazneh is
the most famous. His name Kazneh means "treasure" and
comes from the Bedouin belief that the Pharaoh who
prosecutes the Israelites concealed his exchequer in the urn in
the high of the Kazneh. The fronts of tomb were constructed of
the top downwards. The channels were carved in the rock.
The Monastery is the largest tomb façade in Petra, measuring
50 m wide and 45 m high. Despite its name, it was built as a
tomb monument and may have acquired its name from the
crosses inscribed inside. Like the Kazneh, the structure consists
of two stories topped by a magnificent urn.

History

Archaeologists believe that Petra has been inhabited from
prehistoric times. Just north of the city at Beidha, the remains
of a 9000-year-old city have been discovered, putting it in the
same league as Jericho as one of the earliest known
settlements in the Middle East. The Bible tells of how King
David subdued the Edomites, probably around 1000 BCE.
According to this story, the Edomites were enslaved, but
eventually won their freedom. A series of great battles were
then fought between the Judeans and the people of Edom.

Petra
As many as 30,000 people may have lived in Petra during the
1st century A.D. It is a misconception that Petra was a city only
for the dead. A large earthquake in 363 A.D. destroyed at
least half of the city. Petra never recovered from this
destruction.
Petra was seen first when discovered in 1812 after being lost by
the 16th century for almost 300 years. The classical name
Petra, and the early name Sela both mean the same thing,
"Rock"; and surely no city was ever more aptly named. But

"Rock" only conveys half the picture of the city; the wild,
fantastic shapes of the hills, the great chasms which cleave
them, the brilliant colouring all these must be seen to be
believed. Petra is unique alike in its antiquities, its natural
setting, and its approach.

6. ROMAN COLOSSELUM,
ITALY (ROME)
Rome was a center of learning, trade and commerce for ages
and has contributed significantly in the development of these
areas. The origination of the word ―Coliseum‖, probably come
from colossal statue of Nero which once stood near the
stadium.
The discussion of Rome would be unfinished without the
description of so the much talked Roman Colosseum. But non
doubt the architecture and the concept is definitely a matter
of appreciation and pride.
Originally was the Flavian Amphitheatre, an elliptical
amphitheatre located in the heart of the city of Rome. It is one
of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman
engineering. The building was constructed by emperors of the
Flavian dynasty, hence its original name. In antiquity, Romans
may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name
Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been
strictly poetic.
The Colosseum or Coliseum occupies a site just east of the
Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD
under the emperor Vespasian, opened by Emperor Titus in 80
AD with 100 days of games which roughly have taken the lives
of some nine thousand animals and remodeled by Domitian
who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground

tunnels used to house animals and slaves. Also he added a
gallery to the top Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

ROMAN COLOSSELUM
The Coliseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public
spectacles, with a capacity of 50 000 spectators. It was used
for the next 500 years with the last recorded games being held
there. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many
other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea
battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous
battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. It ceased to
be used for entertainment in the early medieval era and it was
later re-opened for such varied purposes as housing,
workshops; quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry
and a Christian shrine.
Today the Colosseum is in a ruined condition, due to damage
caused by an earthquakes and stone-robbers. For a long time
it has been seen as an icon symbol of Imperial Rome. It’s one of

modern Rome’s most popular tourist attractions and still has
close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each
Good Friday the Pope leads torchlight ―Way of the Cross‖
procession to the amphitheatre. The Coliseum is depicted on
the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
History

The construction began under the rule of Vespasian Emperor
around 70-72. The site was a flat area on the floor of a low
valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine hills,
through which a canalized stream ran. Later the area was
densely inhabited by the 2nd century. The Great Fire of Rome
in AD 64 devastated it, in addition Nero seized much of the
area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose
Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an
artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes.
To supply water to the area, the existing Aqua Claudia
aqueduct was extended and the gigantic bronze Colossus of
Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.

The superb Roman Colosseum
Although the Colossus was preserved much of the Domus
Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land
reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre.
Within the former grounds, gladiatorial schools and other
support buildings were constructed nearby the Domus Area.
The Coliseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal
monument, in accord to a reconstructed inscription found on
the site, ―the emperor Vespasian ordered this new
amphitheatre to be erected from his general’s share of the
booty‖. This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure
seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great
Jewish Revolt.
The Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire around
217, possibly caused by the lightning which destroyed the
wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre’s interior. It was not
fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs

in 250 or 252 and again in 320. In 443 a possibly to repair
damage caused by a major earthquake. The arena continued
to be used for contests well into the 6th century with
gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts
continued until at least 523.
During the medieval period, the Coliseum underwent several
radical changes. The arena was converted into a cemetery.
Around 1200 the Frangipani family used it as a castle, but the
great earthquake of 1349 caused the outer south side to
collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build
palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in
Rome.
In 1749, the Pope Benedict XIV consecrated the building to the
Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it
sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished
there.
Due to the ruined state, the Coliseum cannot use to host large
events so much of these larger concerts have been held just
outside, using the building as a backdrop. The Colosseum was
covered with an enormous awning known as the velarium.
This protected the spectators from the sun. It was attached to
large poles on top of the Colosseum and anchored to the
ground by large ropes. A team of some 1,000 men was used to
install the awning.

7. TAJ MAHAL, INDIA (AGRA)
The Taj Mahal is standing majestically on the right bank of
River Yamuna at a point where it takes a sharp turn and flows
eastwards; the Taj Mahal is synonymous of love and romance.
The Taj Mahal complex is organized in a rectangle, measuring
approximately 310 x 550 meters. It comprises a number of
buildings and structures, all functioning together as the
funerary monument for Mumtaz Mahal.
The entire architectural complex mainly consists of five major
constituents the Darwaza (The main gateway), Bageecha (The
gardens), Masjid (The mosque), Naqqar Khana (The rest
house), Rauza (The main mausoleum).
The Taj Ganj area leads to the southern gate into the forecourt
of the Taj Mahal complex, although the eastern and western
gates of the Jilaukhana are more frequently used by tourists.
The latter two gates are identical, with central pointed-arch
Pishtaqs flanked by octagonal pilasters crowned with
Guldastas (ornamental flower pinnacles).
The southern gate is similar to the east and west ones in its
verticality. Due to the natural gradient of the site, which slopes
toward the riverbank, this gate lies 2.4 m above the ground
elevation of the Jilaukhana itself. Two bazaar streets begin at
the east and west gates and lead to the Jilaukhana. The
bazaars consist of individual rooms (Hujra) along an arcaded
Verandah of multi-cusped arches that are supported on
slender columns. The Jilaukhana consists of a large courtyard
with 128 hujra rooms opening directly onto the courtyard.

To the northeast of the Jilaukhana are the khawasspuras, two
residential enclosures. The north side of the Khawasspuras
abuts the southern galleries that flank the great gate to the
east and the west. The outer southern corners of the enclosures
in the khawasspuras have rooms giving access to latrines. The
two Saheli Burj (inner subsidiary tombs) enclosures to the east
and west of the Jilaukhana are the tomb complexes of two
other wives of Shah Jahan. The saheli burj enclosures have
gardens arranged in the Chahar Bagh style, with a pool of
water in the center surrounded by paved walkways.
The tomb buildings are octagonal, single-story structures, built
on a plinth. The walls are formed of multi cusped arcades. The
building and its plinth are clad in red sandstone; the structure
is topped by a bulbous white marble dome. Inside, the south
door of both of the Saheli Burj tombs leads to the cenotaph
within. The colours of the exterior cladding are reversed in the
interior: the walls are clad in white marble, while the Jalis and
ceiling are sandstone.
The great gate (darwaza-i rauza) is a large structure with
triadic openings the base of the gate measures nearly 38
meters and its peripheral walls, including the cupolas, are 30
meters in height. The central Pishtaq, also including the
cupolas, is 33 meters in height and 19 meters wide. The gate is
composed of red sandstone with decorative panels and accents
in white marble.
The entry Iwan contains Muqarnas in red sandstone, which
contrasts with the white plaster paint outlining each segment.
Topping the central Pishtaq is a series of eleven arches in red
sandstone, capped by a chajja. This arrangement of
architectural elements into rows is found on both the north

and south side of the gate, in keeping with the design of the
Taj Mahal complex and its internal hierarchies. The corners of
the gateway are accentuated by engaged towers, also of red
sandstone, that project outward slightly; these towers are
decorated with frames of white marble.
The pointed arch on the south elevation of the darwaza-i
rauza partially frames the visitors' first glimpse of the main
structure, the mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal. Flanking the
darwaza-i rauza on the north, two double arcaded galleries of
multifoliate arches known as the southern galleries, one to the
east and one to the west, overlook the large garden that
precedes the main mausoleum. The columns of the outer and
inner arcades differ only in the decoration of their bases: the
outer ones have floral decoration alluding to the garden. The
platform of the galleries extends into the garden, and its
decorative tile paving pattern faces the garden. The galleries
terminate on the east and west ends in rooms which are
entered from within the gallery.
A shallow water canal (nahr) runs along the centre of the
primary walkways; a line of equidistant water fountains runs
down the center of the nahr. Geometric patterns in red
sandstone depicting regular and elongated stars decorate the
edges of the central pathways running on each side of the
nahr. At the intersection of the primary walkways is a raised
platform with a square water tank (Hauz) at its center. Five
fountains are located within the tank, one at each of its four
corners and one in its center. The east-west walkways
terminate in two-story pavilions (Naubat Khanas) that merge
into the outer garden walls. Aqueducts supplied water to the
garden from the Yamuna River just north of the mausoleum.
The central fountains operated with an underground system of

copper vessels connected by copper pipes. At present the
garden contains relatively few trees, consisting mainly of fairly
maintained grass lawns.
The two Naubat Khanas (drum houses) are constructed on
raised platforms and have two floors. On each level, the
naubat khanas have a triple archway in the center of the east
and west elevations, respectively. On the ground level, the
arches are closed with a Jali screen; on the upper level, they
remain open. The floor slab of the upper story projects beyond
the wall above and below to form a balcony as long as the
building; carved red sandstone handrails run along its length,
and carved sandstone brackets help support it from below.
The Tahkhana, a gallery of rooms arranged in a row and
connected by a narrow corridor, is reached by two staircases
that descend from openings in the surface of the plinth to the
east and west of the mausoleum.
The secondary, square marble plinth, 93 meters long, is centred
on the sandstone terrace. The mausoleum proper and the four
minarets flanking it are placed on this marble plinth. The base
of the plinth is decorated with delicate carvings of vegetal
motifs, which also appear on the white marble cladding of the
mausoleum.
In the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal complex, the central
chamber is double-height and octagonal in plan. At its center
rest the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan. The
chamber is capped by a shallow dome and decorated with
niches on each two-story wall. These niches on the cardinal
axes have Jali screens, fitted on the external faces of the walls,
which allow light into the room. The niches on the diagonal
axes hold rectangular doors. The niches are separated into

lower and upper stories by an inscription band that runs
around the interior. On the upper level, these frames are
replaced by Muqarnas that begin to transform the octagonal
plan into a circular ring for the dome. The shallow dome,
which is the lower portion of the double dome used for
construction, thus appears as decorated with an extended
pattern of the Muqarnas that support its base.
The floor of the tomb chamber is tiled with octagonal marble
stars in alternating cruciform modules, each outlined with
inlaid black stone. Each side of this marble octagonal screen is
divided into three panels; only one opens to access the
cenotaph. The cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal is a rectangular
block placed on a platform decorated with Quranic verses on
the upper block and naturalistic motifs on the lower base.
On the roof of the mausoleum is a high drum, topped with a
bulbous dome measuring 25.6 meters high by 17.6 meters wide.
Four diagonally placed chhatris flank the drum. The terrace
provides a view of the garden below; it is accessed by staircases
from the ground floor that lie on either side of the entrance to
the mausoleum. The four elevations reflect the symmetry of
the mausoleum's plan. The two frames flanking the central
Pishtaq contain blind arched niches on the upper and lower
levels. Each corner of the building presents a chamfered
elevation (to the northeast, northwest, southeast, and
southwest).
The frame of the mausoleum's central Pishtaqs, as with other
similar forms within the complex, is decorated with an inlaid
Thuluth inscription of a Quranic verse. At the Pishtaq's highest
point is a linear pattern of floral motifs running between two
extended engaged columns capped with guldastas. As

compared to the larger central Pishtaqs, these two sub-
pishtaqs are less elaborately treated, with pilasters on the
outer elevations decorated with an inlaid herringbone pattern
in black and dark yellow. These pilasters are flanked by square
panels, framed with horizontal and vertical chevrons, at their
base.

The mosque and Mihmankhana are located to the west and
east of the mausoleum building. Symmetrical and identical in
design, it is conjectured from records that the mosque was built
first, followed by the Mihmankhana. The mosque has a Mihrab
in its Qibla wall, highlighted by a marble frame with an
inscription of the Sun Sura. The floor of the mosque also differs
from that of the Mihmankhana; it is patterned in Muslim
prayer mats. The ceilings are finished in the Sgraffito
technique, consisting of a coat of red plaster laid over a white

one. Floral designs are later carved through the red layer, to
appear in white.
The southwest tower contains a Stepwell (baoli) whereas that
to the south of the Mihmankhana holds chambers leading to
latrines. The southwest tower with the baoli also has a well
shaft running down the centre of the structure and extending
through its five floors: three above, two below. The two tower
pavilions north of the mosque and Mihmankhana contain
chambers leading to latrines on the lower levels, and stairs
leading toward the riverbed. The four riverfront towers are
each octagonal in plan. Each tower has a central room with an
ambulatory path circling around the exterior. The exterior
walls have multi-cusped blind arches; each terrace has an Oriel
window (Jharoka) with views of the river. The towers are clad
in red sandstone and have floral motifs carved in relief with
marble inlays on panels.
History

Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1628-
1658), grandson of Akbar the great, in the memory of his
queen Arjumand Bano Begum, entitled Mumtaz Mahal a
Muslim Persian princess. The queen’s real name was Arjumand
Banu. In the tradition of the Mughals, important ladies of the
royal family were given another name at their marriage or at
some other significant event in their lives, and that new name
was commonly used by the public.
She died while accompanying her husband in Burhanpur in a
campaign to crush a rebellion after giving birth to their 14th
child. When Mumtaz Mahal was still alive, she extracted four
promises from the emperor: first, that he build the Taj; second,

that he should marry again; third, that he be kind to their
children; and fourth, that he visit the tomb on her death
anniversary. But this has not been proven to be true, till date.
According to legend, after his wife’s death, Shah Jahan
reportedly locked himself in his rooms and refused food for
eight days, when the emperor emerged from his seclusion, his
black beard visible in many Mughal miniature paintings had
turned completely white. For the monument to his wife, Shah
Jahan chose a site occupied by sprawling gardens on a bend in
the left bank of the Yamuna River. Six months later, her body
was transferred to Agra to be finally enshrined in the crypt of
the main tomb of the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal is the
mausoleum of both Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan.

The Taj Mahal
The construction of Taj Mahal started in the year 1631 and it
took approximately 22 years to build it. It made use of the
services of 22,000 labourers and 1,000 elephants for the

transportation of the construction materials. The materials
used in the Taj Mahal complex are bricks, sandstone and white
marble. Brick sizes varied between 18-19 x 11-12.5 x 2.3 cm, a
standard size since Akbar's rule. These bricks were baked in
kilns on the outskirts of Agra. The sandstone used in the
complex has a colour varying from soft red to red with a
yellow tint. White marble came from the quarries of Makrana
in Rajasthan, approx. 400 kms southeast of Agra. The marble
used in the complex was a white one with black and grey
streaks.
The greatest technical problem in the construction of the Taj
Mahal was its heavy superstructures near the riverfront. This
was accomplished using wells cased in wood and filled with
rubble and iron, spaced at 3.75 meters on center. Precious and
semi-precious stones are used in the decoration of the
mausoleum than elsewhere in the complex. These stones
include lapis lazuli, sapphire, cornelian, jasper, chrysolite and
heliotrope. A strict discipline in colours and decoration is visible
in the detailed ornamentation of the Taj Mahal. Floral relief
carvings are found on the marble and sandstone walls; these
carvings are stylistically related to the pietra dura work, yet
are worked according to the material of the building they
adorn.
The Taj Mahal architecture is a kind of fusion of Persian,
Central Asian and Islamic architecture. Specific design credit is
uncertain, and is given by different sources to Istad Usa, Ustad
Ahmad Lahori, Isa Muhammad Effendi or Geronimo Veroneo.
But construction documents show that its master architect was
Istad Usa, the renowned Islamic architect of his time. The
documents contain names of those employed and the
inventory of construction materials and their origin. And how

the entire complex is designed in such a way that the apparent
organic unity of the whole does not obscure the individuality of
any part, nor does it detract from the prominence of the Taj
Mahal proper. It was completed in 1648 at a cost of 32 Million
Rupees (more than 750 000 dollars).

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