3. Kurt Levin (1946) defined the term ”action research“. A
social research is a combination of theory and practice, and
purpose is to change a social system through researcher
acting as an observer or as an active participant.
In Britain a group of researchers (later at the Tavistock
Institute of Human Relations) developed independent
action research method.
John Collier (1945) developed approach to action-oriented
knowledge.
Rapoport (1970) defined “Action research aims to contribute
both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate
problematic situation and to the goals of social science by
joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical
framework. “
Arguris et al. (1987) defined action research as an action
science.
4. Practical problem-solving
Practitioners and
designers achieving
practical solution in
organizational context
Research projects
Researchers interested
in studying reality and
developing knowledge
Action research area
Practical problem-solving
integrated to research setting
and participant researcher
5. According to Baskerville (1999), action research is two stage process. Diagnostic
and therapeutic.
Primary goals
Organisational
development
System design
Scientific knowledge
Training
Structure
Rigorous
Fluid
Typical involment
Collaborative
Facilitative
Expert
Process model
Iterative
Reflective
Linear
Social
environment
(Client-system
infrastructure)
Source: Baskerville (1999)
Action research stages
Client-System infrastructure
1. Diagnosing
2. Action planning
3. Action taking
4. Evaluating
5. Specifying learning
6. Iterative action research types
Canonical Action research
Soft Systems
Prototyping
Collaborative practice research
Cyclical Process model
Diagnosing, action planning action
taking, evaluating and learning
Cyclical spiral process
Reflective action research
Action science research
Participant observation
Action learning
Dialogical action research
(used other dicipline)
Linear action research
Ethics-method
Multiview
Clinical field work (laboratory
research)
Process consultation
7. Premises Decision Contributions
Practice-oriented
Research is real-world
problem-solving
oriented.
Induktiivinen
Observing and
discussing
Analyzing real-
world phenomena
Experiments
Field researches
Theory development
Method(s) of problem-solving
Research method
Theoretical
Research is based on
theoretical questions of
information systems.
Knowledge questions
Deduktiivinen
Developing
research methods
based on theory,
and evaluating
theory
Experiments
Field study
Theory development
Methods of problem-solving
Research method
Source: Mathiassen, Chiasson and Germonprez, 2012
Järvinen Pertti: review, 2012
8. Type Description Epistemological
orientation
Positivist AR The research is based on predifined hypotheses and thus testing
theory using by multiple methods.
Positivist (high)
Action science The goal of the research is to solve problems in a client
organization by exposing differences between espoused theory
and theory in use.
Positivist
(Medium)
Canonical AR Theory provides the general basis on which action planning take
place. Attention is paid to theory assessment and refinement.
Positivist (low)
Participatory
AR
Theory emerges through the research. Research client participate
actively in the data analysis and respective learning processes.
Interpretive
(high)
Multiview The goal is to identify and improve a client situation through the
use of a joint information systems development methodology.
Interpretive
(meidum)
Soft systems
methodology
The goal is to diagnose and solve a problem in a client
organization through a well defined and structured process-
oriented methodology.
Interpretive
(low)
Critical AR Research is motivated by power imbalances and is aimed at
having a liberating effect, wheryby power imbalances are
reduced or eliminated.
Critical high)
Source: DeLuca and Kock (2007)
9. Assumptions
Ontology The beliefs of the social reality, how social reality is
constructed. Action research is value laden, morally
committed. A researcher perceive themselves their social
context.
Epistemology The epistemological position is mainly anti-positivist.
Researches can search for regualarities and causal
relationships. Knowledge is uncertain, knowledge creation is
collaborative process.
Methodology The methodology is open-ended and developmental.
Ethics Means-ends oriented and may be interpretive.
Its focus is real-world problems to trying to find out solutions.
Its ethical framework is mutually acceptable with researches
and practitioners. (Client-problem solving approach).
Iivari and Venable (2009), Whitehead and McNiff (2006), Järvinen P. (2005)
10. Premises Description
1. Purpose of action The action research must explicate the theoretical
purpose underline the action. Theory must be
explicit before action is taken.
2. Practical action in
problem setting
It is necessary to reveal the relative truth-value of the
theoretical concepts underlying the action.
3. Practical action must
inform theory
The theory must be adjusted according to the
practical outcome of the action. Theory must be
validated by its practical outcome.
4. Reasoning and action
must be socially
situated
The social situation means that the action
researchers must be participant observers.
Source: Baskerville and Mayers (2004)
Dewey (1938), common elements of inquiry: An indeterminate situation, formulation of
problem, determination of a solution, reasoning, and operationalization of facts.
11. Research setting Methodological principles Critical assumptions
Action research
team
Teachers,
Principals,
Practitioners,
Consultants
Interaction of action and participation.
Context specific understanding and ways of
knowing.
Developing of agential learning capabilities.
Conceptualizing critical action
research based on the
assumption that the truth of
social reality resides otuside the
contexts of participants until
they receive emansipatory
knowledge.
(ideal emansipation)
Networked
working
Establishment of collective vision of social
change and sustainability.
Incorporation of high level of reflexity.
Gaining broader perspective of social change
and sustainability.
Enhancement of diversity.
Researchers and practitioners
are closely working and regular
meetings are organized.
Data collection
techniques
Collaborative inquiry into Client-System
organization.
Critical data gathered and
discussions recorded. Collected
information is shared including
confidential data.
14. Key features Description
1. PAR is social process It explores the relationships between the realms of the individual and the
social.
2. PAR is participatory It engages people in examining their knowledge (understanding, skills
and values) and interpretive categories and their action in the social and
material world.
3. PAR is practical and
collaborative
It engages people in examining the social practices that link them with
others in social interaction.
4.PAR is emansipatory It aims to help people recover, and release themselfs from the constraints
of irrational, unproductive, unjust and unsatisfying social structures that
limit their self-development and self-determination.
5. PAR is critical It aims people to help recover, and release themselfes from the
constraints embedded in the social media through which they interact.
6. PAR is recursive
(reflective and dialectical)
It aims to help people to investigate reality in order to change it.
7. PAR aims to tranform
both theory and practice
It aims to help people to articulate and develop each in relation to the
other through critical reasoning about both theory and practice and their
concequences.
Source: Denzin and Lincoln (2000)
15. A spiral process of action researech Skills and values
Social practices
Communication
Production
Social organization
Social structures
Culture
Economy
Political life
Social media
Language
Work
Power
Individual knowledge
Understanding
Skills
Values
Social practices
Communication
Production
Social organization
Social structures
Culture
Economy
Political life
Social media
Language
Work
Power
Individual’s knowledge
Understanding
16. Basic assumptions Descriptions
Teachers and principals work best on
problems they have identified for
themselves.
Action research is deliberate, solution-oriented
investigation. It is characterized by spiraling
cycles of problem identification,m analysis, data-
driven action taken, and finally problem
redefinition.
Teachers and principals become more
effectice when encouraged to examine
and assess their own work and then
consider ways of working differently.
Purpose of action research in education can be to
develop curriculum, professional skills, systems
planning, school restructuring and to develop
evaluation tools.
Teachers and principals help each
other by working collaboratively.
Working with colleagues helps
teachers and prinicipals in their
professional development.
In order to do action research it needs that time,
and other resources are available for teachers.
Source: Eileen Ferrance (2000) and Watts (1985, p.118)
17. Assumptions Description
Epistemology
(relationship between
inquirer and the known)
Research is carried out in a natural environment, and
it is based on the constructivist ideas.
Axiology
(ethical, aesthetic and
spritual considerations)
Research practice is improved, and learning has
taken place. Practitioners' and researchers’
collaborative work may benefit research processes
and results.
Ontology
(nature of reality/people)
Research purpose is intentional and collaborative,
and phenomenon of interest is chancing (it is not
static).
Generation of theory Results of research process is often contex-based.
Some generalization with or across research projects
may be possible.
Methods Research methods are qualitative (positive thoughts
to the grounded theory).
Source: adapted from Papas et al. (2012
18. Project
start
Diagnosis
Identifying and
defining problem
Action taking
(Intervention)
Data collection and
analysis
Evaluation
Action and results
Reflection
A general findings
Action planning
Exploring alternative
solutions
Project
end
Instrumental
theory
Focal
theories
Research-
Client
agreement
Focal theory is the intellectual
basis for action research.
(e.g. TAM, IS-success)
Instrumental theories are
used for diagnosis and
planning, and to organize
thoughts. Source: Davison(2003) and Järvinen (2011)
19. Real-world
situations
and systems
Analysis of problem
situation and
evalution
Conceptual
model of real-
world problem
Structured real-
world problems
Action to improve
the problem
situation
(implementation)
Defining
concepts and
models
Development of
feasible and
desirable changesReal wolrd
System thinking
Root definition of
relevan system
Comparison of the
model with real-world
phenomenon
20. Action Research
Case study
Research
Case studies
Intensive or comparative
1. Purpose
2. Assumption
3. Situation
1. select cases
2. data collection
3. analyzing data
4. shaping hypothesis
5. comparison with literature
6. conclusions
4. Types of research
1. Narrative
2. Tabulation
3. Explanatory
4. Interpretative
Source: Eisehardt (1989), Cunningham (1997), Järvinen P. (2012)
Germonprez M. and Mathiassen L. (2009)
21. Principles
Foundatation Epistemology and action research types: CAR,PAR,NAR, AL, CFW.
Ethics
Research-client
agreement
Formal/non-formal argreement, Client commitment
Role expectations
Data collection and analysis
Project focus
Cyclical process
model
Degree of opennes
Cycle description
Decision criteria for proceed/exit
Theory Relevance and theory usage
Change through
action
Cause, intervention, client approval
organizational assessment, document
Learning through
reflection
Reporting style, Collaborative reflection
Project success, implication to practice and theory
Source: De Vries (2007)
22. Research
design types
Descriptions The world that
is explored
Sequential Methods are applied in a sequence with
results from one method feeding into the
next.
1. Material world
2. Personal world
3. Social world
Parallel Methods are executed simultaneusly with
results being tranferred between methods.
Dominant One method is adopted as the main approach
supplemented by other methods.
Multi-
methodology
Different methods embodying different
paradigms are combined and tailored to a
particular project.
Research
perspective:
1. subjective
2. objective
3. intersubjective
Multi-level The research project simultaneusly addresses
different organizational levels using different
methods.
Source: Mingers (2001)
23. Design principles Design outcomes Socio-technical implications
Context-sensitive
service
(How to switch
between different
contexts?)
Increased convenience
Better ease of use
User acceptance
Various individual use
patterns
Wider and easier user
acceptance
No resistance
Contextually adapted
(How to recognize
different usage
situtation at work?)
Improved working
situation
Better modification
rules and ease settings
Integration of services
relying on different
interaction models
Ubiquitous computing
environment.
Context-switching
support
(What are typical
context-switching
situation at work?)
Generally convienient
context switches
Trustful context-switches.
No need specific user-guides.
Source: modified from Henfridsson (2003)
24. Evaluation objects Evaluation criteria are based on the following:
Socially situated The role of action researchers (degree of participant and role of observer).
Problem relevance Research problem is relevant and problem is based on practical
phenomenon and actual for the company or the society.
Purpose of research The purpose of the research is to produce problem-solving proposals and
proposals are based on collected data and analysis.
Practical action in the
problem
All research actions are described, and clearly articulated in a way that it is
possible to carry out research using by similar actions.
Applied research
method(s)
The applied research method is clearly described, and it is based on
generally accepted action research method. It is possible to apply more than
one method during the research process.
Used theoretical
framework
Research actions are based on theoretical framework, and these actions can
inform theory.
Research activities and
research rigour
All research activities are described and are based on applied research
method, so that other researchers or readers can follow the research
process.
Theoretical contribution The theoretical contributions are articulated in a way that can be used other
research projects.
Practical contribution Results of research includes problem-solving proposals that are accepted by
practitioners.
Source: adapted from Papas et al. (2012)
25. Schön’s reflection question of problem-solving:
Can I solve the problem I have set?
Do I like what I get when I solve this problem?
Have I made the situation coherent?
Have I made it congruent with my
fundamental values and theories?
Have I kept inquiry moving?
26. Typical role of
action research
Description
Research planner,
leader and
designer
An action researcher is planning a research project. A researcher
can lead the research project. A researcher designs the whole action
research process.
Catalyzer,
facilitator, teacher,
helper
During the action research process, the researcher can activate
other participants, organize meetings and discussions. The role of
teacher is essential to conform with that research process is carried
out properly.
Listener, observer Both roles, listener and observer are fundamental. The researcher
can collect relevant information by listening and observing.
Synthesizer and
reporter
(Active decision
maker)
Supporter
The role of synthesizer means that the researcher during the
research process actively collects data and analyses it. The role of a
reporter means that the researcher arranges continuous reporting
during the research process. After the process, the researcher
finalizes and publishes the results of action research taken both
theoretical and practical reasoning into account.
Source: modified from O´Brien (1998)
27. Research object Criteria to select Action research approach
The artefact and
organizational
practice
The design process of an artifact can improve organization
practices, and this is the primary goal of the inquiry. The
design of an artifact may need to apply design science
method. This must be taken into account.
The process and
research cycles
Practical problem is explicit and diagnosis may be time
consuming. Canonical action research method is suitable or
possible. Research project is based on agreement between
researcher(s) and practioners.
The focus of
evaluation
The evaluation steps are part of the research cycle.
The role of
knowledge
Practical actions and outcomes dominate the research
project. Collaborative working style is dominative. The one
objective is to enhance knowledge during the research
project.
The role of
learning
Shared actions between researcher(s) and practitioners will
lead to learn.
28. Action research Design science research
Action research emphasizes the utility aspect of
the future system from the people’s point of
view.
Design science’s products are assessed against criteria
of valua or utility.
Action research produces knowledge to guide
practice in modification.
Design science produces design knowledge (concepts,
constructs, models, and methods.)
Action research means both action taking and
evaluating.
Buildin and evaluation are the two main activities of
design science.
Action researc is carried out in collaboration
between action researcher and and the client
system.
Design science research is initiated by the researcher(s)
interest in developing technological rules for a certain
type of issue. (Each individual case is primarily oriented at solvin
the local problem in close collaboration wtih the local people.)
Action research modifies a given reality or
develops new system.
Design science solves construction problems (producing
new innovations) and improvement problems (improving the
performance of existing entities).
The researcher intervenes in the problem setting. Design science research is initiated by the researcher
(s) interest in developing technological rules for certain
type of issue.
Knowledge is generated, used, tested adn
modified in the course of the action research
project.
Knowledge is generated, used and evaluated through
the building action.
Source: Järvinen p: (2005)
29. Phases Field experiment canonical action research
At start of reserch Researcher’s role is dominant
Practitioner’s role is non-dominant
Researcher’s role is non-dominant
Practitioner’s role is dominant
During research
process
Researcher’s role is dominant
Practitioner’s role is non-dominant
Both roles are collaborative
At end of research
process
Researcher’s role is dominant in
scientific evaluation
Practitioner’s role is domnant in
practical evaluation
Researcher’s role is dominant in scientific
evaluation
Practitioner’s role is domnant in practical
evaluation
Purpose of research Testing hypotheses and
relationship between independed
and depended variables.
The purpose is to solve real-world
problem with practitioners.
Theoretical framework.
Outcomes of
research
The relationship in the research
model is supported or not
supported by the evidence of field
experiment.
Possible practical implications can
be also achieved.
The relevant outcome is to solve
pratitioner’s problem and in the intended
manner.
The scientific result is to the theoretical
framework studying by assumed
relationship between variables.
The concept of
study
Manipulating isolated single
variable and at same time being
other variable constant.
The cyclical research process includes
diagnosing, action planning, action taking,
evaluating and specifying learning
30. Action research Design science research
Purpose Understanding reality in an
organizational context
Solving a purely technical problem by
developing and evaluating a new
solution technology.
Suggestion Action planning. Considering
alternative courses of action
for solving a problem.
Defining needed requirements and
main features of a solution. Specifying
research process by applying research
method(s).
Development Action taking. Selecting a
course of action. Data
collection and analysis.
Developing a solution that meets
requirements and features and start the
building process. Evaluation is
included to the building as an activity.
Evaluation Studying concequences of an
action.
Demontrating, simulating developed
solution using by specified evaluation
method.
Conclusion Specifying learning and
identifying general findings.
Publishing theoretical and practical
consequences and future research
proposals.
31. Improvement problem
(IT-artefact )
Knowledge problem
(Design science)
Improvement problem
(Action research Client-System
environment)
Problem investigation
Stakeholders, goals, criteria
Phenomena and evaluation
Research problem investigation
Unit of study
Conceptual model
Research questions and Current knowledge
Problem investigation
Stakeholders, goals, criteria
Phenomena, diagnosis
Evaluation
Artifact design
Requirements
Features of the artefact
Criteria of evaluation
Plan of development process
Research design
Acquire client
Agree on improvement goals
Agree treatment and measurement
Reasoning
Treatment design
Specify treatment using artefact
Agree on implementation plan
Design validation
Expected effect in context
Expected evaluation
Trade-offs
Sensitivity
Research design validation
Effective for question-answering
Good enough
Trade-offs
Sensitivity
Design validation
Expected effect in client-systems
Expected evaluation
Trade-offs
Sensitivity
Implementation
Transfer to the economy
Research execution
Perform the research project
Implementation
Implementation of artefact in client-
system
Implementation evaluation
Stakeholders, goals, criteria
Achieved effects in conctext
Achieved evaluation results
(Field experiment)
Analysis of results
Observation
Explanation
Limitations
Contribution to knowledge
Consequences for improvement
Implementation evaluation
Stakeholders, goals, criteria
Achieved effects in client-system
Achieved evaluation results.
Source: modified from Wieringa and Morali (2012)
35. real-world
problems
Area – of
research
interest
Framework
of area of
research
interest
Framework of
indepented
research
interest
Research
methods
Research
questions
Conceptual
contrubutions
A
C(a)
C(fi)
Research
methodology
development
M(r)
M(ps)
Possible
solutions to
real-world
problems
Source: based on Mathiassen L., Chiasson M., and Germonprez M. (2009)
36. Risk factors A researcher’s role and
responsiblity in Action research
projects
100% 75% 50% 25%
Time consuming research projects High High Medium Low
Loosing control of research agenda High Medium Medium Medium
Need for nursing research projects High High Medium Low
Concern with progress and success High High Medium Low
Facing conficting situations High High Medium Low
Fearful of not being succesful project High High Medium Low
Simonsen (2009)
Simonsen proposes that junior researchers should participate in collaborative research projects that
are managed by senior researchers. Having the supervisor co-operation in the action research can
lead to the better results and lower to risks.
37. Style Definitions
From-the-
trenches
Focus on the practical problem-
solving contribution and/or specific
research settings.
Action research results
R = f(A,P,F, M,C), where A is
area of concern, P is real-world
problem setting, F is conceptual
framing of investigation, M is
method(s), and C is contributions
to practice and theory.
Area- of concern
investigation
Contribution to A or F(a) withing a
particular research setting.
Emprical
Conceptual
Framework
investigation
Contribution to F(i) with new
knowledge on frameworks
independet of A for studying IS
practice.
Critique
Development
Problem-solving
methodology
Contribution to M(ps) with new
knowledge about problem-solving
methods.
Critique
Development
Research
methodology
investigation
Contribution to M(r) with new
knowledge on action research
methods.
Critique
Development
Source: adapted from Mathiassen L., Chiasson M., and Germonprez M. (2009
38. Structure Description
Intoduction Introduce and motivate objective of the study.
Background Provide a review of the relevant literature. Include the
motivation for the study by evaluating what we know and
what we do not know.
Framing Introduce and argue how the structure of data and data
gathering has been organized. Give premises how data is
analyzed based on the principle of theory.
Methods Describe and argue why the selected method(s) is applied to
the study.
Results Present results of the problem-solving cycle based research
method(s) and data-analysis.
Discussion and
conclusions
Discuss and draw conclusions based on research questions
and the objective of the research. Show research results in
relation to literature. Provide possible explanations, explicate
conclusions with evidence for each conclusion. State
theoretical and practical implications.
Source: modified from Mathiassen, Chiasson and Germonprez (2009)
39. Criteria Description
Articulation of
objectives
Researchers explicitly clarify the research objectives, which they believe to be
relevant to their work. Researchers describe choices they have made during
the research process.
Partnership and
participation
Researcher extent the means of partnership and how they participate during
the research process. Researchers concern all relevant relational components
of the action research process. The role of researchers is essentially described
on the research paper (passive observer, active observer, consultation or
active participant).
Contribution to action
research theory and
practice
A researcher describes and communicates how results of action research can
be linked to the wider body of knowledge, and how results can be utilized in
practice in the future.
Methods and process A researcher clearly articulates what was done to whom so that a reader can
see the choices to enhance quality that were made.
Actionability A researcher articulates how new ideas guided research activities and how
ideas can be utilized next research projects.
Reflexivity A researcher how the role of the researcher has been active as a change agent.
Significance A researcher explicitly clarifies the significance of the content and research
process so that a reader can see how results and process extent both research
knowledge in theory and practice.
Source: modified from Huang (2010)
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