Ap research methods

Research MethodsResearch Methods
AP PsychologyAP Psychology
Mr. BasichMr. Basich

Research Methods: Objectives:Research Methods: Objectives: By the end of this chapter, I will be able to:By the end of this chapter, I will be able to:
 Differentiate types of research (e.g., experiments, correlational studies, surveyDifferentiate types of research (e.g., experiments, correlational studies, survey
research, naturalistic observations, and case studies) with regard to purpose,research, naturalistic observations, and case studies) with regard to purpose,
strengths, and weaknesses.strengths, and weaknesses.
 •• Describe how research design drives the reasonable conclusions that can beDescribe how research design drives the reasonable conclusions that can be
drawn (e.g., experiments are useful for determining cause and effect; the use ofdrawn (e.g., experiments are useful for determining cause and effect; the use of
experimental controls reduces alternative explanations).experimental controls reduces alternative explanations).
 •• Identify independent, dependent, confounding, and control variables inIdentify independent, dependent, confounding, and control variables in
experimental designs.experimental designs.
 •• Distinguish between random assignment of participants to conditions inDistinguish between random assignment of participants to conditions in
experiments and random selection of participants, primarily in correlational studiesexperiments and random selection of participants, primarily in correlational studies
and surveys.and surveys.
 •• Predict the validity of behavioral explanations based on the quality of researchPredict the validity of behavioral explanations based on the quality of research
design (e.g., confounding variables limit confidence in research conclusions).design (e.g., confounding variables limit confidence in research conclusions).
 •• Distinguish the purposes of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.Distinguish the purposes of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
 •• Apply basic descriptive statistical concepts, including interpreting andApply basic descriptive statistical concepts, including interpreting and
constructing graphs and calculating simple descriptive statistics (e.g., measures ofconstructing graphs and calculating simple descriptive statistics (e.g., measures of
central tendency, standard deviation).central tendency, standard deviation).
 •• Discuss the value of reliance on operational definitions and measurement inDiscuss the value of reliance on operational definitions and measurement in
behavioral research.behavioral research.
 •• Identify how ethical issues inform and constrain research practices.Identify how ethical issues inform and constrain research practices.
 •• Describe how ethical and legal guidelines (e.g., those provided by the AmericanDescribe how ethical and legal guidelines (e.g., those provided by the American
Psychological Association, federal regulations, local institutional review boards)Psychological Association, federal regulations, local institutional review boards)
protect research participants and promote sound ethical practice.protect research participants and promote sound ethical practice.

Chapter Objectives:Chapter Objectives:
 Lesson OneLesson One: Describe the: Describe the
nature and advantages ofnature and advantages of
experimentation.experimentation.
 Lesson TwoLesson Two: Discuss the: Discuss the
main methods of psychologicalmain methods of psychological
 Lesson ThreeLesson Three: Identify how to: Identify how to
make a psychological studymake a psychological study
valid and reliable.valid and reliable.
 Lesson FourLesson Four: Describe the: Describe the
ethical guidelines that must beethical guidelines that must be
followed when conductingfollowed when conducting
psychological research.psychological research.
 Lesson FiveLesson Five: Identify the: Identify the
appropriate statistics to useappropriate statistics to use
when analyzing psychologicalwhen analyzing psychological
data.data.

Chapter Schedule:Chapter Schedule:
 Day 1: The Controlled Experiment / Hand out Review PacketDay 1: The Controlled Experiment / Hand out Review Packet
 Day 2: Genie Case Study – Part 1/ QuizDay 2: Genie Case Study – Part 1/ Quiz
 Day 3: Finish Genie Case Study / Genie DiscussionDay 3: Finish Genie Case Study / Genie Discussion
 Day 4: Types of ResearchDay 4: Types of Research
 Day 5: Eliminating Confounding VariablesDay 5: Eliminating Confounding Variables
 Day 6: Ethical Guidelines – Milgram and Harlow / Introduce andDay 6: Ethical Guidelines – Milgram and Harlow / Introduce and
work on Mock Experimentwork on Mock Experiment
 Day 7: Finish Mock Experiment / Quiz / Work on Review PacketDay 7: Finish Mock Experiment / Quiz / Work on Review Packet
 Day 8: Elementary StatisticsDay 8: Elementary Statistics
 Day 9: ReviewDay 9: Review
 Day 10: TestDay 10: Test

If I took part in the Stanford Prison Experiment IIf I took part in the Stanford Prison Experiment I
would be most comfortable playing the role of:would be most comfortable playing the role of:
Prisoner
G
uard
Zim
bardoN
one
ofthe
ab...
0% 0%0%0%
1.1. PrisonerPrisoner
2.2. GuardGuard
3.3. ZimbardoZimbardo
4.4. None of theNone of the
aboveabove
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Lesson One: ObjectivesLesson One: Objectives
 By the end of this lesson, I will be able to:By the end of this lesson, I will be able to:
 1. Describe how research design drives the1. Describe how research design drives the
reasonable conclusions that can be drawn (e.g.,reasonable conclusions that can be drawn (e.g.,
experiments are useful for determining causeexperiments are useful for determining cause
and effect; the use of experimental controlsand effect; the use of experimental controls
reduces alternative explanations).reduces alternative explanations).
 2. Identify independent, dependent,2. Identify independent, dependent,
confounding, and control variables inconfounding, and control variables in
experimental designs.experimental designs.
 3. Distinguish between random assignment of3. Distinguish between random assignment of
participants to conditions in experiments andparticipants to conditions in experiments and
random selection of participants, primarily inrandom selection of participants, primarily in
correlational studies and surveys.correlational studies and surveys.

Lesson One: The ControlledLesson One: The Controlled
ExperimentExperiment
 The goal of psychologicalThe goal of psychological
research is to describe,,research is to describe,,
predict, and explain, andpredict, and explain, and
control psychologicalcontrol psychological
phenomenon.phenomenon.
 Psychologists conductPsychologists conduct
research to answer behavioralresearch to answer behavioral
questions.questions.
 They acquire data throughThey acquire data through
careful observation andcareful observation and
measurement.measurement.
 Experiments, naturalisticExperiments, naturalistic
observations, interviews,observations, interviews,
questionnaires, and casequestionnaires, and case
studies are all used to gatherstudies are all used to gather
data.data.

What Do Psychologists Study?What Do Psychologists Study?
 Psychologists studyPsychologists study
things such as:things such as:
personality, values,personality, values,
intelligence, talents,intelligence, talents,
heredity, and socialheredity, and social
environment.environment.
 Good research is able toGood research is able to
bebe replicatedreplicated – repeated– repeated
in different situations within different situations with
similar results.similar results.
 We are first going to lookWe are first going to look
at the framework of goodat the framework of good

How Do Psychologists UseHow Do Psychologists Use
Research?Research?
 Psychologists spend much of their time trying to find out whyPsychologists spend much of their time trying to find out why
something is happening. (correlations, causations, etc.)something is happening. (correlations, causations, etc.)
 With that being said, psychologists use a four tiered approach whenWith that being said, psychologists use a four tiered approach when
trying to explain and ultimately control behavior.trying to explain and ultimately control behavior.
 1.1. DescribeDescribe – This is easy – John gets into fights– This is easy – John gets into fights
regularly at schoolregularly at school
 2.2. PredictPredict – Every time John gets made fun of at school– Every time John gets made fun of at school
he starts fighting.he starts fighting.
 3.3. ExplainExplain – John is physically abused at home by his– John is physically abused at home by his
Dad.Dad.
 4.4. ControlControl – Remove John from his abusive– Remove John from his abusive
environment and provide him with an outlet for his builtenvironment and provide him with an outlet for his built
up anger. (MMA)up anger. (MMA)

The Controlled Experiment:The Controlled Experiment:
 Researching scientist useResearching scientist use
hypotheses to drive theirhypotheses to drive their
 HypothesisHypothesis – Predictions– Predictions
of how two or moreof how two or more
factors are likely to befactors are likely to be
related. (testable)related. (testable)
 ExperimentExperiment – A– A
researcher systematicallyresearcher systematically
manipulates a variablemanipulates a variable
under controlledunder controlled
conditions and observesconditions and observes
the response.the response.

The Controlled Experiment:The Controlled Experiment:
 Independent VariableIndependent Variable – The– The
factor that the researcherfactor that the researcher
manipulates (gives aspirin tomanipulates (gives aspirin to
participant)participant)
 Dependent VariableDependent Variable – The– The
factor that may change as afactor that may change as a
result of the manipulation of theresult of the manipulation of the
independent variable (how theindependent variable (how the
participant feels after taking theparticipant feels after taking the
aspirin)aspirin)
 Think about it like this:Think about it like this:
 IV – CauseIV – Cause
 DV – EffectDV – Effect
 ImportantImportant: A controlled: A controlled
research experiment is the onlyresearch experiment is the only
research methods that canresearch methods that can
establish a cause and effectestablish a cause and effect
relationship.relationship.
I wonder what will
happen if I…..

Hypotheses are:Hypotheses are:
0%0%0%0%0%
Integrated sets o... Testable predicti...
Hunches about men... Measures of relat...
Both 3 and 4
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1.1. Integrated sets of principlesIntegrated sets of principles
that help to organizethat help to organize
observationsobservations
2.2. Testable predictions, oftenTestable predictions, often
derived from theoriesderived from theories
3.3. Hunches about mentalHunches about mental
processesprocesses
4.4. Measures of relationshipsMeasures of relationships
between two factorsbetween two factors
5.5. Both 3 and 4Both 3 and 4
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Creating Effective Research:Creating Effective Research:
 So, you have a hypothesis.So, you have a hypothesis.
Now what?Now what?
 PopulationPopulation – Includes all of– Includes all of
the individuals in the group tothe individuals in the group to
which the study applies. (thewhich the study applies. (the
effects of high school studentseffects of high school students
eating fast food on a dailyeating fast food on a daily
basis)basis)
 SampleSample – Subgroup of the– Subgroup of the
population (RHS studentspopulation (RHS students
eating fast food on a dailyeating fast food on a daily
basis)basis)
 TheThe largerlarger the sample size, thethe sample size, the
better.better.
 The moreThe more diversediverse the samplethe sample
population the better (unless ofpopulation the better (unless of
course you’re studyingcourse you’re studying
something particular)something particular)

Creating Effective Research:Creating Effective Research:
 What is the best way toWhat is the best way to
get a good sampleget a good sample
population?population?
 Random SelectionRandom Selection ––
Randomly assigningRandomly assigning
participants to yourparticipants to your
research study. (hat,research study. (hat,
numbers, etc.)numbers, etc.)
 With random selectionWith random selection
you will get a moreyou will get a more
well-rounded researchwell-rounded research
study.study.

Psychologists use experimental research inPsychologists use experimental research in
order to reveal or to understand:order to reveal or to understand:
C
orrelational...
O
perationalde...H
ypotheses
Theories
C
ause
and
effe...
0% 0% 0%0%0%
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1.1. CorrelationalCorrelational
RelationshipsRelationships
2.2. OperationalOperational
definitionsdefinitions
3.3. HypothesesHypotheses
4.4. TheoriesTheories
5.5. Cause and effectCause and effect
relationshipsrelationships
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Experimental Groups:Experimental Groups:
 In a research experiment youIn a research experiment you
need to have two groups:need to have two groups:
 Experimental groupExperimental group ––
Receives the treatment (IV).Receives the treatment (IV).
 Control GroupControl Group – Does not– Does not
receive the treatment (DV)receive the treatment (DV)
 These should also beThese should also be
randomly assigned.randomly assigned.
 This type of research is calledThis type of research is called
aa Between-Subjects DesignBetween-Subjects Design
because the participants in thebecause the participants in the
experimental and controlexperimental and control
groups are different.groups are different.
 Why do you need a controlWhy do you need a control
group?group?
 To test the effects of the IV onTo test the effects of the IV on
the experimental group.the experimental group.

The procedure designed to ensure that the experimentalThe procedure designed to ensure that the experimental
and control groups do not differ in any way that might affectand control groups do not differ in any way that might affect
the experiment’s results is called:the experiment’s results is called:
Variable
contr...
R
andom
assignm
...
R
epresentative...Stratification
B
etw
een-subjec...
0% 0% 0%0%0%
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1.1. Variable controllingVariable controlling
2.2. Random assignmentRandom assignment
3.3. RepresentativeRepresentative
samplingsampling
4.4. StratificationStratification
5.5. Between-subjectsBetween-subjects
designdesign
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In order to determine the effects of a new drug on memory,In order to determine the effects of a new drug on memory,
one group of subjects is given a pill that contains the drug.one group of subjects is given a pill that contains the drug.
A second group is given a sugar pill that does not containA second group is given a sugar pill that does not contain
the drug. This second group constitutes the:the drug. This second group constitutes the:
R
a
n
d
o
m
s
a
m
p
le
E
x
p
e
rim
en
tal
g
...
C
o
n
tro
l
G
ro
u
p
T
e
s
t
G
ro
u
p
D
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t
g
ro
u
...
0% 0% 0%0%0%
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1.1. Random sampleRandom sample
2.2. ExperimentalExperimental
groupgroup
3.3. Control GroupControl Group
4.4. Test GroupTest Group
5.5. Dependent groupDependent group
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Other Research Terms:Other Research Terms:
 Confounding VariablesConfounding Variables ––
Differences between theDifferences between the
experimental and control groupsexperimental and control groups
other than those resulting fromother than those resulting from
the independent variable.the independent variable.
 Our next lesson will focusOur next lesson will focus
entirely on how to eliminateentirely on how to eliminate
confounding variable. (bias,confounding variable. (bias,
social behaviors, etc.)social behaviors, etc.)
 True experimental researchTrue experimental research
controls for everything:controls for everything:
ExampleExample: College student: College student
exercise and weight loss.exercise and weight loss.
 Operational DefinitionOperational Definition ––
Describes the specific procedureDescribes the specific procedure
used to determine the presenceused to determine the presence
of a variable:of a variable: ExampleExample ––
College student weight loss.College student weight loss.

In an experiment to determine the effects ofIn an experiment to determine the effects of
exercise on motivation, exercise is the:exercise on motivation, exercise is the:
C
onfounding
va...
Intervening
va...
Independentva...
D
ependentvari...
H
ypotheticalv...
0% 0% 0%0%0%
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1.1. ConfoundingConfounding
variablevariable
2.2. Intervening variableIntervening variable
3.3. IndependentIndependent
variablevariable
4.4. Dependent variableDependent variable
5.5. Hypothetical variableHypothetical variable
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Lesson Two: Objectives:Lesson Two: Objectives:
 1.1. Differentiate types of researchDifferentiate types of research
(e.g., experiments, correlational(e.g., experiments, correlational
studies, survey research, naturalisticstudies, survey research, naturalistic
observations, and case studies) withobservations, and case studies) with
regard to purpose, strengths, andregard to purpose, strengths, and
weaknesses.weaknesses.

Lesson Two: Types of Research:Lesson Two: Types of Research:
 TheThe controlled experimentcontrolled experiment
is the only true way to gatheris the only true way to gather
cause and effectcause and effect
relationships.relationships.
 However, it is very timeHowever, it is very time
consuming and expensive toconsuming and expensive to
have this artificialhave this artificial
environment running aroundenvironment running around
the clock.the clock.
 Many other positive methodsMany other positive methods
are used in psychology toare used in psychology to
gather data.gather data.
 Surveys, Case studies,Surveys, Case studies,
naturalistic observations, andnaturalistic observations, and
tests are used.tests are used.

I have decided where I want to goI have decided where I want to go
to college next year:to college next year:
Yes
M
aybe
N
o
0% 0%0%
1.1. YesYes
2.2. MaybeMaybe
3.3. NoNo
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Naturalistic Observation:Naturalistic Observation:
 Do you think you’d actDo you think you’d act
differently if you knewdifferently if you knew
someone was watchingsomeone was watching
you?you?
 NaturalisticNaturalistic
ObservationObservation – Gather– Gather
descriptive informationdescriptive information
about typical behavior ofabout typical behavior of
people or other animalspeople or other animals
without manipulating anywithout manipulating any
variables. (Lunch B-ball)variables. (Lunch B-ball)
Click on me!!!

Naturalistic Observation (cont.)Naturalistic Observation (cont.)
 Positives:Positives:
 InexpensiveInexpensive
 AmbiguousAmbiguous
 Easy to collect dataEasy to collect data
 Very realistic behaviorVery realistic behavior
and dataand data
 Negatives:Negatives:
 People may realizePeople may realize
you’re studying themyou’re studying them
(act different)(act different)
 Desired behavior(s)Desired behavior(s)
may never happenmay never happen
 No control over theNo control over the
environmentenvironment
(McDonald’s French(McDonald’s French
Fries)Fries)

Which of the following research strategies would be best forWhich of the following research strategies would be best for
determining whether alcohol impairs memory?determining whether alcohol impairs memory?
0%0%0%0%0%
Experiment Naturalistic Obse...
Survey Case Study
Correlational study
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1.1. ExperimentExperiment
2.2. NaturalisticNaturalistic
ObservationObservation
3.3. SurveySurvey
4.4. Case StudyCase Study
studystudy
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Survey Method:Survey Method:
 Survey MethodSurvey Method ––
Researchers useResearchers use
questionnaires or interviewsquestionnaires or interviews
to ask a large number ofto ask a large number of
people questions about theirpeople questions about their
behaviors, thoughts, andbehaviors, thoughts, and
attitudes.attitudes.
 Surveys should be large,Surveys should be large,
random samples.random samples.
 Surveys should be clear,Surveys should be clear,
concise, and not too wordyconcise, and not too wordy
or too lengthy (Target)or too lengthy (Target)

Surveys (cont.)Surveys (cont.)
 Conducting a survey requiresConducting a survey requires
aa representative samplerepresentative sample, or a, or a
sample that reflects all majorsample that reflects all major
characteristics of thecharacteristics of the
population you want topopulation you want to
represent.represent.
 If you are attempting to surveyIf you are attempting to survey
"America's attitude towards"America's attitude towards
exercising", then your sampleexercising", then your sample
cannot include onlycannot include only
Caucasian, upper-classCaucasian, upper-class
college students between thecollege students between the
ages of 18 and 22 years.ages of 18 and 22 years.
 This does not representThis does not represent
America.America.

A psychologist studies the play behavior of third grade children byA psychologist studies the play behavior of third grade children by
watching groups during recess at school. Which research strategy iswatching groups during recess at school. Which research strategy is
being used?being used?
0%0%0%0%0%
Correlatio... Case Study Experimental
Survey Naturalist...
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3.3. ExperimentalExperimental
4.4. SurveySurvey
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Surveys: Positives and Negatives:Surveys: Positives and Negatives:
 Quick and efficientQuick and efficient
 Can poll large numberCan poll large number
of peopleof people
 RelativelyRelatively
inexpensiveinexpensive
 Reliable measureReliable measure
(everyone gets the(everyone gets the
same survey)same survey)
 Questions may beQuestions may be
confusing or biasedconfusing or biased
 People may not takePeople may not take
it seriouslyit seriously
 Sometimes difficult toSometimes difficult to
gain in depthgain in depth
knowledgeknowledge

Another way: use interviews:Another way: use interviews:
 ExampleExample: In the early 1970’s,: In the early 1970’s,
researchers found an increaseresearchers found an increase
in babies being born within babies being born with
deformed limbs in England anddeformed limbs in England and
the USA.the USA.
 Researchers decided to useResearchers decided to use
Ex Post Facto StudiesEx Post Facto Studies ––
studies that look at an effectstudies that look at an effect
and seek the cause – to try toand seek the cause – to try to
find out what was going on.find out what was going on.
 They found a strongThey found a strong
correlation between thecorrelation between the
defects and the mothers thatdefects and the mothers that
took a drug called Thalidomidetook a drug called Thalidomide
during pregnancy.during pregnancy.
 After the study, researchersAfter the study, researchers
went back tested the drug onwent back tested the drug on
rats and found similar results.rats and found similar results.

Well done surveys measure attitudes in a representative subset,Well done surveys measure attitudes in a representative subset,
or _________, of an entire group, or _________.or _________, of an entire group, or _________.
Population;Random
...
C
ontrolG
roup;Expe...
Experim
entalG
roup...
R
andom
Sam
ple;Po...
0% 0%0%0%
1.1. Population; RandomPopulation; Random
SampleSample
2.2. Control Group;Control Group;
Experimental GroupExperimental Group
3.3. Experimental Group;Experimental Group;
Control GroupControl Group
4.4. Random Sample;Random Sample;
PopulationPopulation
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Test Method:Test Method:
 TestsTests – Procedures used to– Procedures used to
measure attributes ofmeasure attributes of
individuals at a particular timeindividuals at a particular time
and place.and place.
 Can be used to gather hugeCan be used to gather huge
amounts of information quicklyamounts of information quickly
and cheaply.and cheaply.
 For tests and surveys to beFor tests and surveys to be
accurate measures of behavioraccurate measures of behavior
they must be:they must be:
 1.1. ReliableReliable – Consistent and– Consistent and
repeatable.repeatable.
 2.2. ValidValid – The extent to which– The extent to which
an instrument (test, survey)an instrument (test, survey)
measures or predicts what it ismeasures or predicts what it is
supposed to.supposed to.
 Educational Testing –Educational Testing –
Formative and SummativeFormative and Summative

Tests: Positives and NegativesTests: Positives and Negatives
 PositivesPositives::
 Easy to administerEasy to administer
and gradeand grade
 Everyone gets theEveryone gets the
same testsame test
 Quick resultsQuick results
 NegativesNegatives::
 ExpensiveExpensive
 Need to continue toNeed to continue to
update testupdate test
 Cannot controlCannot control
outside human factorsoutside human factors
(sleep, well-being,(sleep, well-being,
etc.)etc.)

Case Study:Case Study:
 Case StudyCase Study – In depth– In depth
examination of a specificexamination of a specific
group OR single person thatgroup OR single person that
typically includes interviews,typically includes interviews,
observations, and testobservations, and test
scores.scores.
 This method is especiallyThis method is especially
useful for understandinguseful for understanding
complex or rarecomplex or rare
phenomenon. (Genie)phenomenon. (Genie)
 Clinical psychologistsClinical psychologists
frequently do case studies.frequently do case studies.
(longitudinal kids study)(longitudinal kids study)

Case Study: Positives andCase Study: Positives and
Negatives:Negatives:
 Very detailedVery detailed
informationinformation
 Not very expensiveNot very expensive
 Not applicable toNot applicable to
larger populationslarger populations
 Takes a lot time,Takes a lot time,
effort, and attention toeffort, and attention to
detaildetail

Controlled Experiment:Controlled Experiment:
 PositivesPositives
 Can show true causeCan show true cause
and effectand effect
relationshipsrelationships
 If done properly, isIf done properly, is
considered “sound”considered “sound”
research by theresearch by the
academic worldacademic world
 NegativesNegatives
 CostlyCostly
 Time consumingTime consuming

After detailed study of a gunshot wound victim, a psychologistAfter detailed study of a gunshot wound victim, a psychologist
concludes that the brain region destroyed is likely to be important forconcludes that the brain region destroyed is likely to be important for
memory functions. Which research method did the psychologist use tomemory functions. Which research method did the psychologist use to
deduce this?deduce this?
C
ase
Study
SurveyC
orrelational...
C
ontrolled
Exp...
N
aturalistic
o...
0% 0% 0%0%0%
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2.2. SurveySurvey
4.4. ControlledControlled
observationobservation
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Which of the following research methods does NOTWhich of the following research methods does NOT
belong with the others?belong with the others?
0%0%0%0%0%
Case Study Survey
Naturalistic Obse... Controlled Experi...
Correlational exp...
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2.2. SurveySurvey
4.4. ControlledControlled
experimentexperiment
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Lesson Three: Objectives:Lesson Three: Objectives:
 1. Predict the validity of behavioral explanations1. Predict the validity of behavioral explanations
based on the quality of research design (e.g.,based on the quality of research design (e.g.,
confounding variables limit confidence inconfounding variables limit confidence in
research conclusions).research conclusions).
 2.2. Identify how ethical issues inform andIdentify how ethical issues inform and
constrain research practices.constrain research practices.
 3. Describe how ethical and legal guidelines3. Describe how ethical and legal guidelines
(e.g., those provided by the American(e.g., those provided by the American
Psychological Association, federal regulations,Psychological Association, federal regulations,
local institutional review boards) protectlocal institutional review boards) protect
research participants and promote sound ethicalresearch participants and promote sound ethical
practice.practice.

Lesson Three: EliminatingLesson Three: Eliminating
Confounding Variables:Confounding Variables:
 Because we are human, we willBecause we are human, we will
always see some bias inalways see some bias in
 The goal of good research is toThe goal of good research is to
eliminate bias.eliminate bias.
 Experimental BiasExperimental Bias – Occurs– Occurs
when a researcher’swhen a researcher’s
expectations or preferencesexpectations or preferences
about the outcome of a studyabout the outcome of a study
influence the results obtained.influence the results obtained.
 It is difficult to control for this atIt is difficult to control for this at
times because naturally humanstimes because naturally humans
show favoritism towards certainshow favoritism towards certain
people or groups.people or groups.
 The researcher AND thoseThe researcher AND those
being experimented upon maybeing experimented upon may
show bias.show bias.

Eliminating Confounding Variables:Eliminating Confounding Variables:
 Imagine being a part of a studyImagine being a part of a study
where the researcher kept youwhere the researcher kept you
in the dark about what exactlyin the dark about what exactly
was being studied.was being studied.
 You would probably beYou would probably be
interested in finding out whatinterested in finding out what
was being studied (so wouldwas being studied (so would
others in your group).others in your group).
 Demand characteristicsDemand characteristics --
Those being researched uponThose being researched upon
will gather clues or rumorswill gather clues or rumors
suggesting how they shouldsuggesting how they should
respond.respond.

Single / Double Blind Procedures:Single / Double Blind Procedures:
 Single Blind ProcedureSingle Blind Procedure ––
Aims to eliminate the effects ofAims to eliminate the effects of
demand characteristicsdemand characteristics
because the participants don’tbecause the participants don’t
know if they are in theknow if they are in the
experimental or control group.experimental or control group.
 Double Blind ProcedureDouble Blind Procedure ––
Neither the experimenter orNeither the experimenter or
the participants know who is inthe participants know who is in
the experimental and controlthe experimental and control
groups.groups.
 A second researcher orA second researcher or
assistant that doesn’t know theassistant that doesn’t know the
hypothesis or grouphypothesis or group
assignment administers theassignment administers the
experiment.experiment.
 TheThe principal investigatorprincipal investigator
stays away from thestays away from the
participants.participants.

Within Subjects Design:Within Subjects Design:
 Many research designs use:Many research designs use:
 Within Subjects DesignWithin Subjects Design – A subject acts as his– A subject acts as his
or her own control groupor her own control group
 How does this work?How does this work?
 The subject receives a treatment and thenThe subject receives a treatment and then
behavior is recordingbehavior is recording
 The same is recording without the treatmentThe same is recording without the treatment
 Researchers get to see what difference theResearchers get to see what difference the
treatment made in the subject behaviortreatment made in the subject behavior

The method that removes the principal investigatorThe method that removes the principal investigator
from knowing who is in the experimental andfrom knowing who is in the experimental and
control groups is called the:control groups is called the:
Single-blind
procedure
D
ouble-blind
procedure
Experim
enterexpect...
C
ounterbalancing
O
perationalresearch
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1.1. Single-blindSingle-blind
procedureprocedure
2.2. Double-blindDouble-blind
procedureprocedure
3.3. ExperimenterExperimenter
expectancy effectexpectancy effect
4.4. CounterbalancingCounterbalancing
5.5. OperationalOperational
researchresearch

Placebo Effect:Placebo Effect:
 Some experimentsSome experiments
involve medical drugsinvolve medical drugs
that need to be testedthat need to be tested
safely on humans.safely on humans.
 To test the effects of theTo test the effects of the
drugs, the experimentaldrugs, the experimental
group will receive the realgroup will receive the real
drug, while the controldrug, while the control
group will receive agroup will receive a
placeboplacebo – sugar pill.– sugar pill.
 PlaceboPlacebo – An imitation– An imitation
pill, injection, or patchpill, injection, or patch
that lacks the activethat lacks the active
ingredient.ingredient.

Placebo Effect:Placebo Effect:
 Placebo EffectPlacebo Effect ––
Experimental participantsExperimental participants
change their behavior inchange their behavior in
absence of any kind ofabsence of any kind of
experimental manipulation.experimental manipulation.
 If two treatments are beingIf two treatments are being
tested, the researcher maytested, the researcher may
useuse counterbalancingcounterbalancing toto
assign people to twoassign people to two
separate groups instead of allseparate groups instead of all
people getting both drugs.people getting both drugs.
(there may be some residual(there may be some residual
effects from the first drug.)effects from the first drug.)

How does this work?How does this work?
 Researches have proposedResearches have proposed
that placebos work by reducingthat placebos work by reducing
tension and distress andtension and distress and
creating a powerfulcreating a powerful self-self-
fulfilling prophecyfulfilling prophecy..
 Individuals think and behaveIndividuals think and behave
as if the drug (in our example,as if the drug (in our example,
a sugar pill) actually works.a sugar pill) actually works.
 The placebo effect is moreThe placebo effect is more
successful when administeredsuccessful when administered
by trusted and sincereby trusted and sincere
professionals.professionals.
 Mt. Union Experiment - liquidMt. Union Experiment - liquid
Tiger Woods uses a lot of positive
self talk – He believes he will win.

Quasi-Experimental Research:Quasi-Experimental Research:
 Quasi-experimental researchQuasi-experimental research
– Participants are not– Participants are not
randomly assigned.randomly assigned.
 Maybe you want to study theMaybe you want to study the
differences between men anddifferences between men and
women (though thewomen (though the
participants are randomparticipants are random
selected within that particularselected within that particular
sub group)sub group)
 Other examplesOther examples: young and: young and
old, students in one class vs.old, students in one class vs.
students in another class.students in another class.
 This type of research does notThis type of research does not
establish cause and effectestablish cause and effect
because of the sheer amountbecause of the sheer amount
of possible confoundingof possible confounding
variables.variables.

A Quasi-experiment cannot be considered aA Quasi-experiment cannot be considered a
controlled experiment because:controlled experiment because:
Subjects
canno...
Subjects
canno...
Too
few
subjec...
Experim
enterb...
A
double-blind...
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1.1. Subjects cannot beSubjects cannot be
randomly designedrandomly designed
2.2. Subjects cannot beSubjects cannot be
randomly selectedrandomly selected
3.3. Too few subjectsToo few subjects
participate in theparticipate in the
procedureprocedure
4.4. Experimenter bias isExperimenter bias is
unavoidableunavoidable
5.5. A double-blindA double-blind
procedure wasn’t usedprocedure wasn’t used

Lesson Four: Ethical GuidelinesLesson Four: Ethical Guidelines
 1. Identify how ethical issues inform and1. Identify how ethical issues inform and
constrain research practices.constrain research practices.
 2. Describe how ethical and legal2. Describe how ethical and legal
guidelines (e.g., those provided by theguidelines (e.g., those provided by the
American Psychological Association,American Psychological Association,
federal regulations, local institutionalfederal regulations, local institutional
review boards) protect researchreview boards) protect research
participants and promote sound ethicalparticipants and promote sound ethical
practice.practice.

Ethical Guidelines:Ethical Guidelines:
 There have been manyThere have been many
psychological studies inpsychological studies in
the past that would nowthe past that would now
be considered unethical.be considered unethical.
 Stanford PrisonStanford Prison
Experiment,Experiment,
Harlow’s ResearchHarlow’s Research onon
monkeys, Milgram’smonkeys, Milgram’s
shock study.shock study.
 These studies all yieldedThese studies all yielded
impressive results, but atimpressive results, but at
what cost?what cost?

Animal Research:Animal Research:
 The guidelines for animalThe guidelines for animal
research is less strict.research is less strict.
 Here is what the APAHere is what the APA
says:says:
 1. The animals must be1. The animals must be
treated humanelytreated humanely
 2. The animals must be2. The animals must be
acquired, cared for, used,acquired, cared for, used,
and disposed of properly.and disposed of properly.
 3. Researchers must3. Researchers must
make efforts to minimizemake efforts to minimize
their discomfort, infection,their discomfort, infection,
illness, and pain.illness, and pain.

Institutional Review Boards:Institutional Review Boards:
 Before the 1970’s, psychologists conducted research without anyBefore the 1970’s, psychologists conducted research without any
restrictions.restrictions.
 Ethics were not a huge consideration. Data was most important.Ethics were not a huge consideration. Data was most important.
 After Harlow’s Research in the 1970’s, colleges and universitiesAfter Harlow’s Research in the 1970’s, colleges and universities
started to realizes that a watchdog organization was needed instarted to realizes that a watchdog organization was needed in
order to protect both humans and animals from unethical treatmentorder to protect both humans and animals from unethical treatment
during research.during research.
 Most psychological research is done at colleges and universities.Most psychological research is done at colleges and universities.
 Each of these colleges or universities has aEach of these colleges or universities has a Institutional ReviewInstitutional Review
Board (IRB)Board (IRB) that must approve a research study before it can bethat must approve a research study before it can be
started.started.
 All sections of the experiment must be explained and all forms,All sections of the experiment must be explained and all forms,
equipment, etc. must be approved before commencing with theequipment, etc. must be approved before commencing with the
study.study.

APA Guidelines For HumanAPA Guidelines For Human
Research:Research:
 The APA states that in order to experiment onThe APA states that in order to experiment on
humans, the following guidelines must behumans, the following guidelines must be
followed:followed:
 1.Obtain the informed consent of potential1.Obtain the informed consent of potential
participants (can used some deception here)participants (can used some deception here)
 2. Protect them from harm and discomfort (can2. Protect them from harm and discomfort (can
leave the study)leave the study)
 3. Treat information about individual participants3. Treat information about individual participants
confidentially (storage afterwards)confidentially (storage afterwards)
 4. Fully explain the research after the4. Fully explain the research after the
experiment (debriefing)experiment (debriefing)

Lesson Five: Objectives:Lesson Five: Objectives:
 1. Distinguish the purposes of descriptive1. Distinguish the purposes of descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.statistics and inferential statistics.
 ••2. Apply basic descriptive statistical2. Apply basic descriptive statistical
concepts, including interpreting andconcepts, including interpreting and
constructing graphs and calculatingconstructing graphs and calculating
simple descriptive statistics (e.g.,simple descriptive statistics (e.g.,
measures of central tendency, standardmeasures of central tendency, standard
deviation).deviation).

Lesson Five: Elementary StatisticsLesson Five: Elementary Statistics
 A large amount of dataA large amount of data
can be collected incan be collected in
research studies.research studies.
 Now what?Now what?
 Psychologists need toPsychologists need to
make sense out of all ofmake sense out of all of
this data.this data.
 StatisticsStatistics – A field that– A field that
involves the analysis ofinvolves the analysis of
numerical data aboutnumerical data about
representative samplesrepresentative samples
of populations.of populations.

Types of Data Collection:Types of Data Collection:
 Two types of dataTwo types of data
collectioncollection::
 QuantitativeQuantitative – Data that– Data that
is already scored using ais already scored using a
numerical quality (surveynumerical quality (survey
responses)responses)
 QualitativeQualitative – Data that– Data that
needs to be turned intoneeds to be turned into
numerical datanumerical data
(interview responses,(interview responses,
case study data – lookcase study data – look
for themes)for themes)

Types of Scales:Types of Scales:
 How do we make sense of theHow do we make sense of the
data?data?
 Many different scales are used toMany different scales are used to
help clarify the numbers beforehelp clarify the numbers before
they are computed.they are computed.
 Nominal ScaleNominal Scale – When numbers– When numbers
are used to name something (1 =are used to name something (1 =
male, 2 = female)male, 2 = female)
 Ordinal ScaleOrdinal Scale – When numbers– When numbers
are used to rank order somethingare used to rank order something
(1 = first, 2 = second)(1 = first, 2 = second)
 Interval ScaleInterval Scale – When numbers– When numbers
are used to show a meaningfulare used to show a meaningful
difference between other numbersdifference between other numbers
(temperature – 32 degrees is 10(temperature – 32 degrees is 10
degrees different than 42 degrees,degrees different than 42 degrees,
so is 45 and 55.)so is 45 and 55.)
 Ratio ScaleRatio Scale – When a meaningful– When a meaningful
ratio can be made with tworatio can be made with two
numbers. (ratio scale has a real ornumbers. (ratio scale has a real or
absolute zero)absolute zero)

Descriptive Statistics:Descriptive Statistics:
 Data is usually gathered and thenData is usually gathered and then
organized using bar or line graphs.organized using bar or line graphs.
 Descriptive StatisticsDescriptive Statistics – Numbers– Numbers
that summarize a set of researchthat summarize a set of research
data obtained from a sample.data obtained from a sample.
 Frequency DistributionFrequency Distribution – Data is– Data is
organized to show the frequencyorganized to show the frequency
of each score or group of scores.of each score or group of scores.
(how many A’s on a test)(how many A’s on a test)
 HistogramHistogram – A bar graph that is– A bar graph that is
created from the frequencycreated from the frequency
distribution.distribution.
 Frequency PolygonFrequency Polygon – A line– A line
graph that replaces the bars withgraph that replaces the bars with
single points and connects thesingle points and connects the
points with a line.points with a line.

Measures of Central Tendency:Measures of Central Tendency:
 After your data isAfter your data is
collected you can alsocollected you can also
find out more about thefind out more about the
data using measures ofdata using measures of
central tendency.central tendency.
 Normal DistributionNormal Distribution ––
with a large number ofwith a large number of
points, you will frequentlypoints, you will frequently
get a bell curve.get a bell curve.
 If the points are focusedIf the points are focused
to the right or left of theto the right or left of the
frequency polygon youfrequency polygon you
have what’s called ahave what’s called a
skewedskewed distribution.distribution.

 ModeMode - The most frequently- The most frequently
occurring score in aoccurring score in a
distributiondistribution
 ExampleExample::
2,3,4,5,6,7,7,8,9,7,6,4,5,7,72,3,4,5,6,7,7,8,9,7,6,4,5,7,7
 Obviously, seven is the mostObviously, seven is the most
frequently occurring score.frequently occurring score.
 You might use this with surveyYou might use this with survey
research.research.
 BimodalBimodal – If two scores– If two scores
appear most frequently.appear most frequently.
 Multi-ModalMulti-Modal – If three or more– If three or more
scores appear most frequently.scores appear most frequently.

Calculate the mode for the following set ofCalculate the mode for the following set of
numbers: 4,5,6,45,1,2,5,6,7,6,8,6,45,6numbers: 4,5,6,45,1,2,5,6,7,6,8,6,45,6
6
4
45
1
0% 0%0%0%
1.1. 66
2.2. 44
3.3. 4545
4.4. 11
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 MedianMedian -- The middle score inThe middle score in
a distributiona distribution
 Half the scores are above itHalf the scores are above it
and half are below itand half are below it
 1,2,3,4,5 – 3 is the median of1,2,3,4,5 – 3 is the median of
this numbered set.this numbered set.
 For anFor an oddodd # of scores – use# of scores – use
the middle #the middle #
 For anFor an eveneven # of scores –# of scores –
halfway between the two #’s.halfway between the two #’s.
 ExampleExample: 1,2,3,4,5,6 = 3.5: 1,2,3,4,5,6 = 3.5

Calculate the Median of the following set ofCalculate the Median of the following set of
numbers: 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10numbers: 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
6
6.5
7
5
0% 0%0%0%
1.1. 66
2.2. 6.56.5
3.3. 77
4.4. 55
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 MeanMean -- The arithmeticThe arithmetic
average of a distributionaverage of a distribution
 Obtained by adding theObtained by adding the
scores and then dividingscores and then dividing
by the number of scoresby the number of scores
 1+2+3+4+5 = 15 / 5 = 31+2+3+4+5 = 15 / 5 = 3
 I know, you’reI know, you’re
impressed….impressed….

Calculate the Mean of the followingCalculate the Mean of the following
numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
3
4
6
3.14
0% 0%0%0%
1.1. 33
2.2. 44
3.3. 66
4.4. 3.143.14
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Measure of Variability:Measure of Variability:
 VariabilityVariability – describes– describes
the spread or dispersionthe spread or dispersion
of scores for a set ofof scores for a set of
research data orresearch data or
distribution.distribution.
 RangeRange – The largest– The largest
score minus the smallestscore minus the smallest
score.score.
 ExampleExample (quiz scores out(quiz scores out
of 10 pts.):of 10 pts.):
5,6,7,7,7,8,8,9,10 – the5,6,7,7,7,8,8,9,10 – the
range is 5.range is 5.

What is the range for the following set of numbers?What is the range for the following set of numbers?
5,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,11,155,6,6,7,7,8,8,9,9,10,11,15
8
15
5
10
0% 0%0%0%
1.1. 88
2.2. 1515
3.3. 55
4.4. 1010
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Standard Deviation:Standard Deviation:
 Standard DeviationStandard Deviation ––
Indicates the degree toIndicates the degree to
which scores differ fromwhich scores differ from
each other and varyeach other and vary
around the mean value.around the mean value.
 ExampleExample::
 The red represents aboutThe red represents about
68% of population.68% of population.
 The red and greenThe red and green
represent about 95% ofrepresent about 95% of
the population.the population.
 The red, green, and blueThe red, green, and blue
represent about 99% ofrepresent about 99% of
the people.the people.

Correlation Basics:Correlation Basics:
 Scores can be reported inScores can be reported in
many different ways.many different ways.
 Sometimes, psychologists useSometimes, psychologists use
aa standard score (Z Scorestandard score (Z Score) to) to
compare scores that werecompare scores that were
initially on different scales.initially on different scales.
 ExampleExample: A z score of 1 on a: A z score of 1 on a
IQ test might equal 115, whileIQ test might equal 115, while
a z score on the SAT mighta z score on the SAT might
equal 600.equal 600.
 Percentile ScorePercentile Score – Indicates– Indicates
the percentage of scores at orthe percentage of scores at or
below a particular score.below a particular score.
 ExampleExample – If you score at the– If you score at the
9090thth
percentile, 90% of thepercentile, 90% of the
scores are the same or belowscores are the same or below
yours.yours.

Correlation:Correlation:
 When two traits seem toWhen two traits seem to
accompany each other, theyaccompany each other, they
correlate.correlate.
 Correlation coefficientCorrelation coefficient is ais a
statistical measure of astatistical measure of a
relationshiprelationship
 Reveals how closely twoReveals how closely two
things vary together and howthings vary together and how
well one predicts the other.well one predicts the other.
 Correlation does not implyCorrelation does not imply
causationcausation – correlation only– correlation only
indicates that there is aindicates that there is a
relationship between variables,relationship between variables,
not how the relationship camenot how the relationship came
about.about.

Correlation Vs. CausationCorrelation Vs. Causation
 You have to be carefulYou have to be careful
assuming that correlationsassuming that correlations
show cause and effect.show cause and effect.
 Example: Over the last 26Example: Over the last 26
years, there has been a +.88years, there has been a +.88
correlation between whichcorrelation between which
professional football teamprofessional football team
(American or National League)(American or National League)
wins the Super Bowl andwins the Super Bowl and
whether the stock market riseswhether the stock market rises
or falls.or falls.
 +.88 is a very high positive+.88 is a very high positive
correlation.correlation.
 It indicates only a relationship;It indicates only a relationship;
winning a Super Bowl couldwinning a Super Bowl could
not possibly cause a winningnot possibly cause a winning
or losing Stock Market.or losing Stock Market.

Research StrategiesResearch Strategies
Correlation CoefficientCorrelation Coefficient
Correlation
coefficient
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
r = +.37
The closer the # is to 1.00 or
-1.00 indicates the strength
of the correlation.

Which of the following numbers indicates aWhich of the following numbers indicates a
stronger statistical correlation?stronger statistical correlation?
.97
-.98
.05
-.03
0% 0%0%0%
1.1. +.97+.97
2.2. -.98-.98
3.3. +.05+.05
4.4. -.03-.03
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Scatterplots:Scatterplots:
 ScatterplotScatterplot
(scattergrams(scattergrams) - a) - a
graphed cluster of dots,graphed cluster of dots,
each of which representseach of which represents
the values of twothe values of two
variablesvariables
 The slope of the pointsThe slope of the points
suggests the direction ofsuggests the direction of
the relationshipthe relationship
 The amount of scatterThe amount of scatter
suggests the strength ofsuggests the strength of
the correlationthe correlation
 Little scatter indicatesLittle scatter indicates
high correlationhigh correlation

Scatterplots:Scatterplots:
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00) Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)

Inferential Statistics:Inferential Statistics:
 Inferential StatisticsInferential Statistics – Are used to interpret data and– Are used to interpret data and
draw conclusions (make inferences)draw conclusions (make inferences)
 They tell psychologists whether or not they canThey tell psychologists whether or not they can
generalize their results to a larger population.generalize their results to a larger population.
 Statistical SignificanceStatistical Significance – a measure of the likelihood– a measure of the likelihood
that your results show a real difference rather than justthat your results show a real difference rather than just
chance.chance.
 P < .05 = there is a 1/20 probability of being caused byP < .05 = there is a 1/20 probability of being caused by
chance.chance.
 P < .01 = there is a 1/100 probability of being caused byP < .01 = there is a 1/100 probability of being caused by
chance.chance.
 These results are tabulated by using a computerThese results are tabulated by using a computer
program equipped withprogram equipped with Meta-AnalysisMeta-Analysis software (SPSS)software (SPSS)

Which of these values would be consideredWhich of these values would be considered
more statistically significant?more statistically significant?
p
<
.1
4
p
<
.2
4
p
<
.0
2
p
<
.0
3
0% 0%0%0%
1.1. p < .14p < .14
2.2. p < .24p < .24
3.3. p < .02p < .02
4.4. p < .03p < .03
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