PCCN Review

1. PCCN REVIEW PART 1
“Never let what you cannot do
interfere with what you can do”
- John Wooden -
Sherry L. Knowles, RN, CCRN, CRNI

2. PCCN REVIEW PART 1
 TOPICS
 Acute Coronary Syndromes
 ARDS
 Acute Myocardial Infarction
 Chronic Lung Disease
 Heart Blocks
 Drowning
 Heart Failure
 Pneumonia
 Cardiac Alterations
 Pneumothorax
 Aortic Aneurysms  Pulmonary Embolism
 Cardiomyopathy  Respiratory Failure
 Shock States
 Gastrointestinal Alterations
 Peripheral Vascular Disease
 GI Bleeding
 Respiratory Alterations
 Pancreatitis

3. PCCN REVIEW PART 1
 OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the different types of acute coronary syndromes.
2. Identify basic coronary circulation and how it relates to different types
of myocardial infarctions.
3. Anticipate potential complications associated with an AMI.
4. Identify the standard treatment of an AMI.
5. Distinguish between various AV blocks.
6. Recognize the signs & symptoms of heart failure.
7. Identify the treatment of heart failure.
8. Recognize the general definition and classifications of aortic
aneurysms.
9. Understand the different types of aortic dissections.
10. Recognize the signs & symptoms of cardiomyopathy.
11. Differentiate between the different types of cardiomyopathy.
12. Identify the treatment for the different types of cardiomyopathy.

4. PCCN REVIEW PART 1
 OBJECTIVES
13. Understand the different stages of shock.
14. Differentiate between different types of shock.
15. Distinguish between arterial and venous peripheral vascular disease.
16. Identify the various treatments for peripheral vascular disease.
17. Define respiratory failure.
18. Identify the various treatments for acute respiratory failure.
19. Recognize the signs & symptoms and causes of various respiratory
alterations.
20. Identify the standard treatment for various respiratory alterations.
21. Explain the common causes of gastrointestinal bleeding.
22. Describe the most commonly seen treatments for GI bleeding.
23. Describe the signs & symptoms of acute pancreatitis and available
treatments.

5. Cardiovascular Conditions
 Acute Coronary  Cardiomyopathy
Syndromes
 Acute MI  Heart Blocks
 Aortic Aneurysms  Heart Failure
 Cardiac Alterations  Shock States

6. Acute Coronary Syndrome
 DEFINITIONS
– Term used to cover a group of symptoms
compatible with acute myocardial ischemia
– Acute myocardial ischemia is insufficient blood
supply to the heart muscle usually resulting from
coronary artery disease

7. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 DEFINITION
– Infarction occurs due to mechanical obstruction
of a coronary artery (or branch) caused by a
thrombus, plaque rupture, coronary spasm
and/or dissection.
– STEMI vs. NSTEMI (non-STEMI)

8. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Complains Vary
 May include crushing chest pain (which may or may
not radiate), back, neck, jaw, teeth and/or epigastric
pain, SOB, nausea/vomiting and dizziness
– ST elevations on ECG
– Elevated cardiac enzymes

9. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
↑ PAWP, ↓ CO, ↑ SVR, dysrhythmias, S4,
cardiac failure, cardiogenic shock
– Diaphoresis, pallor, referred pains
– Diabetics and women often present abnormal
symptoms

10. Coronary Circulation

11. 12 Lead ECG
I AVR V1
V4
II AVL V2 V5
III AVF V3 V6
II
V

12. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 ST ELEVATIONS
– Anterior Wall MI
 Leads V1-V4

Reciprocal changes in leads II, III, and aVF
 Area supplied by the LAD
– Inferior Wall MI
 Leads II, III and aVF
 Reciprocal changes in leads I, and aVL
 Area usually supplied by the RCA

13. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 ST ELEVATIONS
– Lateral Wall MI
 I, aVL, V5 and V6
 Area supplied by the Circumflex artery
– Posterior Wall MI
 Reflected on the opposite walls
 Opposite deflections

14. Coronary Arteries

15. Anterior Wall MI

16. Inferior Wall MI

17. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 COMPLICATIONS
– Dysrhythmias, heart failure, pericarditis,
ventricular aneurysms, ventricular thrombus,
VSD, mitral regurgitation, papillary muscle (or
chordae tendineae) rupture, pericardial
effusions, pericarditis

18. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 NURSING INTERVENTIONS
– O2
– Bedrest
– Serial ECG’s
– Serial cardiac enzymes
– Keep pain free (NTG. MSO4)
– MONA (Morphine, O2, Nitroglycerin, Aspirin),
Heparin, beta-blockers, and ace inhibitors. May also
include thrombolytics or Gp2b3a inhibitors
– PCI, PTCA, IABP, CABG

19. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 TREATMENT
– Time Is Heart Muscle
– Prompt ECG
– Goals: Relieve pain, limit the size of the
infarction and to prevent complications
(primarily lethal dysrhythmias)

20. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 TREATMENT
– MONA (Morphine, O2, Nitroglycerin, Aspirin),
Heparin, beta-blockers, and ace inhibitors.
May also include thrombolytics or Gp2b3a
inhibitors
– Cardiac Catheterization (with angioplasty,
atherectomy and/or stent)
– IABP, CABG, education

21. Balloon Angioplasty

22. Vascular Stent Deployment

23. Atherectomy

24. Acute Myocardial Infarction
 SPECIFIC TREATMENTS
– Inferior Wall (IWMI)
 Fluids (with RV infarct)
 Inotropics
 Afterload reducing medications
– Anterior Wall (AWMI)
 Diuretics
 Inotropics
 Afterload reducing medications

25. Aortic Aneurysms
 DEFINITION
– A bulge or ballooning of the aorta
 When the walls of the aneurysm include all three
layers of the artery, they are called true aneurysms
 When the wall of the aneurysm include only the
outer layer, it is called a pseudo-aneurysm
– May be thoracic or abdominal

26. Aortic Aneurysms
 CAUSES
 Atherosclerosis
 Marfan syndrome
 Hypertension
 Crack cocaine usage
 Smoking
 Trauma

27. Aortic Aneurysms Rupture
 An aortic aneurysm, depending on its size, may
rupture, causing life-threatening internal bleeding
 The risk of an aneurysm rupturing increases as the
aneurysm gets larger
 The risk of rupture also depends on the location of
the aneurysm
 Each year, approximately 15,000 Americans die of a
ruptured aortic aneurysm.

28. Aortic Aneurysms
 CLASSIFICATIONS
– Classified by shape, location along the aorta,
and how they are formed
– May be symmetrical in shape (fusiform) or a
localized weakness of the arterial wall (saccular)

29. Aortic Aneurysms

30. Aortic Aneurysms
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Often produces no symptoms
– If an aortic aneurysm suddenly ruptures it presents
with extreme abdominal or back pain, a pulsating
mass in the abdomen, and a drastic drop in blood
pressure
– An increase in the size of an aneurysm means an
increased in the risk of rupture

31. Aortic Aneurysms
 THORACIC SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Back, shoulder or neck pain
– Cough, due to pressure placed on the trachea
– Hoarseness
– Strider, dyspnea
– Difficulty swallowing
– Swelling in the neck or arms

32. Aortic Dissections
 DEFINITION
– Tearing of the inner layer of the aortic wall, which
allows blood to leak into the wall itself and causes
the separation of the inner and outer layers
– Usually associated with severe chest pain radiating
to the back

33. Aortic Dissections
A. Dissection B. Whenever the
beginning in the ascending aorta
ascending aorta is not involved

34. Aortic Dissections
A. Dissection B. Whenever the
beginning in the ascending aorta
ascending aorta is not involved

35. Aortic Dissections

36. Aortic Dissections

37. Aortic Aneurysms
 COMPLICATIONS
 Rupture
 Peripheral embolization
 Infection
 Spontaneous occlusion of aorta

38. Aortic Aneurysms
 TREATMENT
 Medical management
– Controlled BP (within specific range)
 Surgical repair
 > 4.5 cm in Marfan patients or > 5 cm in non-
Marfan patients will require surgical
correction or endovascular stent placement

39. Cardiomyopathy
 DEFINITION
– Diseases of the heart muscle that
cause deterioration of the function of
the myocardium

40. Cardiomyopathy
 CLASSIFICATIONS
– Primary / Idiopathic (intrinsic)
 Heart disease of unknown cause, although viral
infection and autoimmunity are suspected causes
– Secondary (extrinsic)
 Heart disease as a result of other systemic diseases,
such as autoimmune diseases, CAD, valvular
disease, severe hypertension, or alcohol abuse

41. Cardiomyopathy
 Hypertropic Cardiomyopathy
 Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
 Dilated Cardiomyopathy

42. Hypertropic Cardiomyopathy
 Bizarre hypertrophy of the septum
– Previously called IHSS
 Idiopathic Hypertropic Subaortic Stenosis
– Known as HOCM
 Hypertropic Obstructive Cardiomyopathy
 Positive inotropic drugs Should Not Be Used
↑ Contractility will ↑ outflow tract obstruction
 Nitroglycerin Should Not Be Used
– Dilation Will Worsen The Problem

43. Harley

44. Hypertropic Cardiomyopathy
 TREATMENT
– Relax the ventricles
 Beta Blockers
 Calcium Channel Blockers
– Slow the Heart Rate
 Increase filling time
– Use Negative Inotropes
 Optimize diastolic filling
– Do Not use NTG
 Dilation will worsen the problem

45. Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
 Rigid Ventricular Wall
– Due to endomyocardial fibrosis
– Obstructs ventricular filling
 Least common form

46. Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
 TREATMENT
– Positive Inotropics
– Diuretics
– Low Sodium Diet

47. Dilated Cardiomyopathy

Grossly dilated ventricles without hypertrophy
– Global left ventricular dysfunction
– Leads to pooling of blood and embolic episodes
– Leads to refractory heart failure
– Leads to papillary muscle dysfunction secondary to
LV dilation

48. Dilated Cardiomyopathy
 TREATMENT
– Positive Inotropes
– Afterload Reducers
– Anticoagulants with Atrial Fib

49. Cardiomyopathies

50. Cardiomyopathy
 GENERALIZED TREATMENT
– Positive Inotropes
 Except with Hypertropic Cardiomyopathy
– Vasodilators
 Except with Hypertropic Cardiomyopathy
– Reduce Preload & Afterload
– Diuretics
– Beta Blockers
– Calcium Channel Blockers
– IABP
– Vasodilators (as indicated)
– Fluid Restriction
– Daily weights, prn O2, planned activities,
education, and emotional support
– Consider Heart Transplant

51. PCCN REVIEW PART 1
BREAK!

52. Conduction Defects
 STABLE VS UNSTABLE
– Stable
 Start with medications
– Unstable
 Shock (cardioversion or defibrillation)

53. Normal Sinus Rhythm
Heart Rate 60 - 100 bpm
Rhythm Regular
P Wave Before each QRS & identical
PR Interval (in seconds) 0.12 to 0.20
QRS (in seconds) < 0.12

54. Atrial Fibrillation
 AFib
– Multifocal atrial impulses at rate 300-600/min
– Irregular conduction to ventricles

55. Atrial Flutter
 AFL
– Atrial impulses at rate of 250-350/min
– Regularly blocked impulses at the AV node
– Saw tooth flutter waves

56. Wandering Atrial Pacemaker
 WAP
– Multiple ectopic foci in the atria
– Three or more p wave morphologies
– Rate < 100

57. Supraventricular Tachycardia
 SVT
– Supraventricular rhythm at rate 150-250
– P waves cannot be positively identified
Atrial Tach = supraventricular rhythm with p wave morphology
that is noticeably different from the sinus p wave

58. Ventricular Tachycardia
 VT
– Ventricular rate of 100-250/min
– Wide QRS

59. Torsades de Pointes
 Polymorphic VT
– VT with alternating ventricular focus
– Often associated with prolonged QT Rate < 100

60. Heart Blocks (AV Blocks)
Sinus Rhythm with First Degree AV Block
Sinus Rhythm with Second Degree AV Block, Type 1
Sinus Rhythm with Second Degree AV Block, Type 2
Third Degree AV Block

61. Heart Failure
 DEFINITION
– A condition in which the heart cannot pump
sufficient blood to meet the metabolic needs of
the body
– Pulmonary (LVF) and/or systemic (RVF)
congestion is present.

62. Heart Failure
 DEFINITION
– Pulmonary Edema
 Fluid in the alveolus that impairs gas exchange by
altering the diffusion between alveolus and capillary
 Acute left ventricular failure causes cardiogenic
pulmonary edema
 Non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema is a synonym for
Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)

63. Heart Failure
 COMPENSATORY MECHANISMS
– Sympaththetic nervous system stimulation
 Tachycardia
 Vasoconstriction and increased SVR
– Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
activation
 Hypo perfusion to the kidneys (renin)
 Vasoconstriction (angiotension)
 Sodium and water retention (kidneys)
 Ventricular dilation

64. Heart Failure
 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
–(without noticeable limitations)
Class I
– Class II upon activity)
(symptoms
– Class III
(severe symptoms upon activity)
– Class IV
(symptoms at rest)

65. Heart Failure
 COMPLICATIONS
– Hypotension
– Dysrhythmias
– Respiratory Failure
– Progressive Deterioration
– Acute Renal Failure
– Fluid & Electrolyte Imbalances

66. Heart Failure
 TREATMENT
– Improve Oxygenation
– Decrease Myocardial Oxygen Demand
– Decrease Preload
– Decrease Afterload
– Increase Contractility
– Manage Dysrhythmias
– Educate!

67. Shock States
 DEFINITION
– Inadequate perfusion to the body tissues
– Low blood pressure with impaired perfusion
to the end organs
– May result in multiple organ dysfunction

68. Shock States
 TYPES OF SHOCK
– Hypovolemic Shock
– Cardiogenic Shock
– Distributive Shock
– Obstructive Shock

69. Shock States
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
The body attempts to compensate for shock:
1. Tachycardia
 Attempts to deliver more blood to the tissues
2. Vasoconstriction
 Attempts to maintain adequate BP in order to
adequately perfuse the body tissues
3. Increased ADH Secretion
 ADH makes the body hold onto water in an effort to
maintain volume and thus enough blood pressure to
perfuse the body tissues

70. Shock States
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Hypovolemic Shock:
 Low BP, tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension,
restlessness, confusion, agitation (or listless), thirst,
pallor, cool, clammy skin, ↑resp. rate, ↓ UOP, ↓ CO, ↓
PAWP, ↓ CVP, ↑ SVR, ↑ lactate levels

71. Shock States
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Cardiogenic Shock:
 Low BP, tachycardia, restlessness, confusion,
agitation (or listless), thirst, pallor, cool, clammy skin,
↑ resp. rate, ↓ UOP, ↓ CO, ↑ PAWP (low with RVF), ↑
CVP, ↑ SVR, JVD, peripheral edema, ventricular
gallop, dyspnea, pulmonary crackles, ↑ lactate levels

72. Shock States
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Anaphylactic Shock:
 Low BP, tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension,
restlessness, confusion, agitation (or listless), thirst,
pallor, warm feeling, pruritus, hives, angioedema,
bronchoconstriction, wheezing, laryngoedema,
dyspnea, cool, clammy skin, ↓ UOP, ↓ CO, ↓ PAWP,
↓ CVP, ↓ SVR, ↑ lactate levels

73. Shock States
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Obstructive Shock:
 Low BP, tachycardia, restlessness, confusion,
agitation (or listless), pallor, cool, clammy skin,
↓ UOP, ↓ CO
 Symptoms related to cause

74. Shock States
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Septic Shock:
 Early Stage (Hyper-dynamic, Warm Phase)
– Normal BP, tachycardia, confusion, agitation (or listless),
↑ resp. rate, ↑ temp, normal color, normal or ↑ UOP, ↓
CO, normal PAWP, ↑ CO, ↓ SVR, ↑

75. Shock States
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Septic Shock:
 Late Stage (Hypo-dynamic, Cold Phase)
– Low BP, tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension,
restlessness, confusion, agitation (or listless), thirst,
pallor, cool, clammy skin, ↓ UOP, ↓ CO, ↓ PAWP, ↓
CVP, ↑ SVR, ↑ lactate levels

76. Shock States
 TREATMENTS
– Hypovolemic Shock:
 Volume (IVF, Blood)
– Cardiogenic Shock:
 ↑ CO
 ↓ Preload & Afterload
 ↓ Myocardial Demand

77. Shock States
 TREATMENTS
– Anaphylactic Shock:
 Epinephrine
 IVF
 Vasoconstrictors
 Support/Maintain Airway
– Obstructive Shock:
 Treat the Cause

78. Shock States
 TREATMENTS
– Septic Shock:
 IVF (150cc/hr or wide open)
 Treat Cause (pan culture, antibiotics)
 Vasoconstrictors in warm phase
 Treat temp (if needed)

79. Vascular Disease
Aorto/Iliac Disease: Pre & Post PTA/Stent

80. Peripheral Vascular Disease
SYMPTOMS ARTERIAL VENOUS
PAIN Upon walking While standing
PAIN RELIEF On resting, standing or Elevation of extremities
dependent position of lower limbs
EDEMA None Present, edematous
PULSES Decreased or absent May be difficult to palpate
INTEGUMENT Hair loss Brownish pigmentation
Skin shiny May be cyanotic when
CHANGES Nail thickening extremities are dependent
Pallor when elevated
Red when dependent
Ulcers located on toes, lateral Ulcers located on ankles,
ULCERS areas or site of trauma medial or pre-tibial areas
Gangrene possible
SKIN TEMPERATURE Cool Normal or warm
SEXUAL ISSUES Impotency Not present
Sexual dysfunction

81. Peripheral Vascular Disease
 TREATMENTS
– Medical
 Are they taking ASA, Coumadin, Ticlid, Plavix,
Oral Contraceptives, Hormones?
– Invasive
 PTA, atherectomy, stents
– Surgical
 Grafts

82. Peripheral Vascular Disease
Bypass Grafts

83. PCCN REVIEW PART 1
BREAK!

84. Respiratory Alterations
 ARDS  Chronic Lung
Disease
 Drowning
 Pneumonia
 Pneumothorax
 Pulmonary
 Respiratory
Embolism
Failure

85. ARDS
 DEFINITIONS
– Severe respiratory failure associated with pulmonary
infiltrates (similar to infant hyaline membrane disease)
– Pulmonary edema in the absence of fluid overload or
depressed LV function (Non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema)
– Originates from a number of insults involving damage to the
alveolar-capillary membrane

86. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

87. ARDS
 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
– Inflammatory mediators are released causing extensive
structural damage
– Increased permeability of pulmonary microvasculature
causes leakage of proteinaceous fluid across the alveolar–
capillary membrane
– Also causes damage to the surfactant-producing type II cells

88. ARDS
 CXR CHARACTERISTICS
– Normal size heart
– No pleural effusion
– Ground Glass appearance
– Often normal early in the disease but may rapidly
progress to complete whiteout

89. ARDS

90. ARDS
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Symptoms develop 24 to 48 hours of injury
 Sudden progressive disorder
 Pulmonary edema
 Severe dyspnea
 Hypoxemia REFRACTORY to O2
 Decreased lung compliance
 Diffuse pulmonary infiltrates
– Symptoms may be minimal compared to CXR
– Rales may be heard

91. ARDS
 RISK FACTORS
Common Risk
Other Risk Factors
Factors
Sepsis Smoke inhalation Acute Pancreatitis
Massive Inhaled toxins DIC
Trauma Burns Head Injury
Shock Near Drowning ↑ ICP
Multiple DKA Fat Emboli
Transfusions Pregnancy Blood Products
Pneumonia Eclampsia Heart/Lung Bypass
Aspiration Amniotic Fluid Embolus Tumor Lysis
Infection Drugs Pulmonary Contusion
Narcotics

92. ARDS
 TREATMENT
– Respiratory Support
– PEEP, CPAP

93. Chronic Lung Disease
 COPD
– Presents with hyper-inflated lung fields
 Due to chronic air trapping
 May be barrel chested
– May lead to cor pulmonale (right-sided heart failure)
 Due to chronic high pulmonary pressures
– Often hypercarbic (high pCO2)
 Often dependent upon hypoxic drive

94. Chronic Lung Disease
 COPD TREATMENT
– Avoid overuse of oxygen (except in emergencies)
– Bronchodilators
– Steroids
– Hydration
– Education
 Pursed Lip Breathing
 Leaning Upright

95. Near Drowning
 Salt Water
– Causes body fluids to shift into lungs
 Osmosis: From low to high concentration
 Results in hemoconcentration & hypovolemia
– Results in acute pulmonary edema
 Fresh Water
– Fluids shift into body tissues
 Results in hemodilution & hypervolemia
 Can result in gross edema
– Damaged alveoli fill with proteinaceous fluid
 May lead to pulmonary edema

96. Pneumonia
 Lung infection (bacterial, viral, or fungal)
– Most commonly caused by Streptococcus
pneumoniae
 Symptoms include fever, pleuretic chest
pain, productive cough, and tachypnea
– Often presents bronchial breath sounds over the
lung area
 Treatment involves giving the right antibiotic

97. Pneumothorax
 DEFINITIONS
– Simple pneumothorax
 Results from buildup of air or pressure in the pleural space
– Spontaneous pneumothorax
 May be due to blebs that rupture
 The 2 key risk factors are increased chest length and
cigarette smoking
– Tension pneumothorax
 Involves a buildup of air in the pleural space due to
one-way movement of air
 Progressively worsens
 Requires immediate intervention

98. Pneumothorax

99. Tension Pneumothorax

100. Pneumothorax
 CAUSES
– Barotrauma
– Injury
– Blebs

101. Pneumothorax
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Standard Pneumothorax
 Sharp "pleuritic" chest pain, worse on breathing
 Sudden shortness of breath
 Dry, hacking cough (may occur due to irritation
of the diaphragm)
 May cause mediastinal shift
– Tension pneumothorax
 Signs of standard pneumothorax with signs of
cardiovascular collapse
 Immediately life threatening
 May cause mediastinal shift

102. Pneumothorax
 TREATMENT
 Spontaneous pneumothorax
– Depends on symptoms & size of pneumothorax
– Provide respiratory support
– May need chest tube or needle decompression
 Some resolve without intervention
 Tension pneumothorax
– Requires immediate intervention
– May cause cardiovascular collapse
– May need chest tube or needle decompression
 2nd intercostal space

103. Pneumothorax
 TREATMENT
– Pleurodesis
 Chemical or surgical adhesion of the lung
to the chest wall
 Used for multiple collapsed lungs or
persistent collapse

104. Flail Chest

105. Pulmonary Embolism
 Definition
– Arterial embolus that obstructs blood flow to the lung
 Signs & Symptoms
– Symptoms include sudden dyspnea, cough, chest
pain, hemoptysis and sinus tachycardia
– Blood gas shows low pO2 & low pCO2
– May present positive Homan’s Sign
– May present loud S2

106. Pulmonary Embolism
 Diagnostic Tests
– CXR
– VQ Scan
– Spiral CT
– Pulmonary arteriogram
– Venous ultrasound of the lower extremities
– ABG with low pO2 & low pCO2
– D-Dimer

107. Pulmonary Embolism
 Treatment
– Requires immediate intervention
– Provide respiratory support
– Treat pain & comfort
– Usually includes intravenous heparin
 Heparin reduces risk of secondary
thrombus formation while clot is reabsorbed
– May require embolectomy
– May require thrombolysis
– May need umbrella filter
– May need long term anticoagulants

108. Respiratory Failure
 DEFINITIONS
– Failure to maintain adequate gas exchange
– Inadequate blood oxygenation or CO2
removal
– PaO2 < 50 mmHg
and/or PaCO2 > 50 mmHg
and/or pH <
7.35
on Room Air

109. Respiratory Failure
TYPE I Hypoxemia without hypercapnia
TYPE II Hypoxemia with hypercapnia

110. Respiratory Failure
 CAUSES
– V/Q Mismatching
– Intrapulmonary Shunting
– Alveolar Hypoventilation

111. Respiratory Failure
 V/Q MISMATCHING
– COPD
– Interstitial Lung Disease
– Pulmonary Embolism

112. Respiratory Failure
 PULMONARY SHUNTING
– AV fistulas/malformations
– Alveolar collapse (atelectasis)
– Alveolar consolidation (pneumonia)
– Excessive mucus accumulation

113. Respiratory Failure
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Restlessness / Agitation
– Confusion / ↓ LOC
– Tachycardia / Dysrhythmias
– Tachypnea / Dyspnea
– Cool, clammy, pale skin

114. Respiratory Failure
 ARTERIAL BLOOD GASES
– pH 7.30 / pO2 45 / pCO2 80
– pH 7.30 / pO2 55 / pCO2 65
– pH 7.32 / pO2 50 / pCO2 50
– pH 7.55 / pO2 65 / pCO2 22

115. Respiratory Failure
 TREATMENT
– Ensure Adequate Ventilation
↑ FiO2
 Ineffective with shunting
 Prolonged O2 > 40% causes O2 toxicity
 Must use caution with CO2 retainers
– Chronic hypercapnia causes CO2 retainers
to use hypoxic drive
– Too much O2 can depress respirations

116. PCCN REVIEW PART 1
BREAK!

117. Gastrointestinal Alterations
 GI Bleed
 Pancreatitis

118. Gastrointestinal Bleeding
 CAUSES
– UGI Bleeding
 Includes the esophagus, stomach, duodenum
– Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD), or Esophageal Varices
– ASA, NSAID’s, Anticoagulants, Alcohol
– H. Pylori
– LGI Bleeding
 Includes the jejunum, ileum, colon, rectum
– Colorectal cancer, Polyps, Hemorrhoids, IBD

119. Gastrointestinal Bleeding

120. Gastrointestinal Bleeding
 Hematemesis – vomiting of blood (or coffee ground
material) (indicates bleeding above the duodenum )
 Melena – passage of black tarry stools > 50ml (indicates
degradation of blood in the bowel)
 Hematochezia – passage of red blood (rectal bleeding)
 Occult Bleeding – bleeding that is not apparent to the
patient and results from small amounts of blood
 Obscure Bleeding – occult or obvious but source not
identified

121. Gastrointestinal Bleeding

Hematemesis – always UGI source

Melana – indicates blood has been in GI tract
for extended periods
– Mostly UGI
– Small bowel
– Rt colon (if bleeding relatively slow)

Hematochezia
– Mostly colon
– Massive UGI bleeding (not enough time for degradation)

122. Gastrointestinal Bleeding
 TREATMENT
– Find the underlying cause
– Fluid volume replacement
– Endoscopy or colonoscopy
– Medical and /or surgical therapy
 Somatostatin
 IV or intra-arterial vasopressin
 Sclerotherpay
 Angiography with embolization
 Electrocoagulation
 Band ligation
 Balloon tamponade (Sengstaken-Blackmore tube)

123. The Pancreas
 The Pancreas secretes digestive enzymes,
bicarbonate, water, and some electrolytes into
the duodenum via the pancreatic duct
– Lipase, Amylase, Trypsin
 The Pancreas also produces
and secretes insulin

124. Pancreatitis
 DEFINITION
– An autodigestive process resulting
from premature activation of
pancreatic enzymes

125. Pancreatitis
 PATHOSHYSIOLOGY
• Inactive pancreatic enzymes are activated outside
of the duodenum
• The swelling pancreas causes fluids to shift into
the retro peritoneum and bowel
• Fluid shifts can cause severe hypovolemia and
hypotension
• Inflammation cause commotion around pancreas

126. Pancreatitis
 MANY CAUSES
– Alcoholism – Hypercalcemia
– Biliary Disease – Peptic Ulcer Disease
– Gallstones – Cystic Fibrosis
– Infections – Vascular Disease
– Hyperparathyroidism – Multiple Drugs
– Hypertriglyceridemia – Much Much More

127. Pancreatitis
 SIGNS & SYMPTOMS
– Abdominal Pain – Hematemesis
– Nausea & Vomiting – Grey Turner’s Sign
– Abdominal Distention – Cullen’s Sign
– Jaundice – Elevated Amylase,
– Malnutrition Lipase, LDH, AST, WBC’s
BUN, and Glucose

128. Pancreatitis
 COMPLICATIONS
– Hypocalcemia – Pleural Effusion (left)
– Hypotension – Pulmonary Infiltrates
– Acute Tubular Necrosis – Hypoxemia
– DIC – Atelectasis
– Obstructive Jaundice – ARDS
– Erosive Gastritis – Pericardial Effusion
– Paralytic Ileus
– Mediastinal Abscess
– Pseudocyst or Abscess
– Hyperglycemia
– Bowel Infarction
– Internal Bleeding – Hypertriglyceridemia
– Fat Necrosis – Encephalopathy

129. Pancreatitis
 TREATMENT
– Stabilization – Monitor For Complications
 Correct Fluid And – Monitor Blood Sugar
Electrolyte Status
– Respiratory Support – Drug Therapies
– Control Pain  Somatostatin,
 Demerol Anticholinergics
– NG Tube – Watch For Signs Of
 NPO Infection
– TPN – Pray
 Restricted Diet

130. Pancreatitis
 FULMINATING PANCREATITIS
• Overwhelming form
• Necrotizing form
• Extreme symptoms
• Seen with ESRF patients
• May lead to ARDS & DIC

131. Pancreatitis
 FULMINATING PANCREATITIS
• Signs & Symptoms
 Tachycardia & low BP (may be the only sign)
 Pulmonary & cerebral insufficiency
 Acute diabetic ketosis or oliguria
 Hemorrhagic pancreatitis may appear

132. PCCN REVIEW
THE END
PART 1

133. PCCN REVIEW PART 1
THANK YOU

134. Resources
Aehlert, B. (2007). RAPID ACLS (2nd Edition). Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. pgs. 67-84,
131-142.
American Heart Association. (2005). Guidelines 2005 for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and
Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Available at: www.americanheart.org.
www.americanheart.org.
Anderson, L. (July 2001). Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm, Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing:15(4):1–14,
July 2001.
Chulay, M., Burns S. M. (2006). AACN Essentials of Critical Care Nursing. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., Chapter 23.
Finkelmeier, B., Marolda, D. Aortic Dissection, Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing: 15(4):15–24.
Hughes E. (2004). Understanding the care of patients with acute pancreatitis. Nurs Standard: (18) pgs
45-54.
Irwin, R. S.; Rippe, J. M. (January 2003). Intensive Care Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins,
Philadelphia: pgs. 35-548.
Sole, M. L., Hartshorn, J., & Lamborne, M. L. (2001). Introduction to Critical Care Nursing (3rd ed).
Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders/Elsevier.
Thelan, L. A., Urden, L. D., Lough, M. E. (2006). Critical care: Diagnosis and Treatment for repair of
abdominal aortic aneurysm. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier. pg 145-188.
Urden, L., Lough, M. E. & Stacy, K. L. (2005). Thelan's Critical Care Nursing: Diagnosis and
Management (5th ed). St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier.
Woods, S., Motzer, S. U. (2004). Cardiac Nursing (4th ed): Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
Wung, S., Aouizerat, B. E. (Nov/Dec 2004). Aortic Aneurysms. Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc.:19(6):409-416, 34(2).
Wynne J, Braunwald E. (2004). The Cardiomyopathies in Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of
Cardiovascular Medicine (7th Edition). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, vol. 2, pps. 1659–1696,
1751–1803.
Zimmerman & Sole. (2001). Critical Care Nursing (3rd Edition). WB Saunders., pgs. 41-80, 176-180,
242-266.