Environment Business

1. Ecosystems & Biodiversity
BBAEV 10201

3. Structure of Biosphere
• Hierarchy
– Species – reproductive group
– Population – members of a single species that
live in a given area
– Community – assemblage of interacting
species in a given area
– Biome – a region with a characteristic plant
community (e.g. rainforest, desert)
– Ecosystem – a community of animals, plants,
microbes, etc. together with the physical
environment that supports it

4. Main Ecosystems:
•
•
•
•
Desert
Rainforest
Ocean
Taiga
•
•
•
•
Tundra
Chaparral
Grassland
Temperate Forest

5. Green: Grassland Purple: Taiga Orange: Tundra Black:
Temperate Forest Yellow: Desert Brown: Chaparral White:
Ocean
Geography, weather, climate and geologic
factors influences interactions within an

6. Organisms of Ecosystems
• Abiotic : Nonliving physical factors of an
environment. It includes water, oxygen,
temperature, amount of sunlight and water
pressure etc.
• Biotoic: Living physical factors of an
environment. Examples: Parasitism, disease
and predation.

7. YOU TRY!!!
• List three more examples of
Abiotic & Biotic Factors:

8. Second Law of Thermodynamics
• There is a tendency for numbers and quantities of
biomass and energy to decrease along food chains.
• The pyramids become smaller at the top because
around 90% of the energy is “lost” between each
level and only 10% is available in the body of the
organism for transfer to the next level.

9. Ecosystem: Trophic levels

10. Pyramid of biomass
Bio=life
Mass=weight
Bio + Mass =
Weight of living
things within an
ecosystem.

11. The Trophic Pyramid:
A Model of Consumption

12. Water cycle: More of physical process than chemical

13. Carbon cycle: biogeochemical process

15. – Recent studies indicate that human
activities have approximately doubled the
worldwide supply of fixed nitrogen, due
to the use of fertilizers, cultivation of
legumes, and burning.
– Possible outcome
• increase nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere
• Contribute to atmospheric warming
• Depletion of ozone
• Acid rain.

16. • Accelerated pollution of lakes.
– Human intrusion has disrupted freshwater ecosystems
by what is called cultural eutrophication.
• Sewage and factory wastes, runoff of animal wastes from
pastures and stockyards have overloaded many freshwater
streams and lakes with nitrogen.
• This can eliminate fish species because it is difficult for
them to live in these new conditions.

17. Biological and geologic processes move nutrients between
organic and inorganic compartments

18. Human population disrupts chemical cycles
• Human activity intrudes in nutrient cycles by
removing nutrients from one part of the biosphere
and then adding them to another.
• Agricultural effects of nutrient cycling.

19. In agricultural ecosystems, a large amount of
nutrients are removed from the area in the crop
biomass.
• After awhile, the natural store of nutrients can
become exhausted.

20. Decomposition rates largely determine the rates of
nutrient cycling
• The rates at which nutrients cycle function in
ecosystems are extremely variable as a result of
variable rates of decomposition.
– Decomposition can take up to 50 years in the tundra,
while in the tropical forest, it can occur much faster.
– Contents of nutrients in the soil of different
ecosystems vary also, depending on the rate of
absorption by the plants.

21. Nutrient cycling is
strongly regulated by
vegetation.

22. Measurements (Co2 & Temp) in 1958 read 316 ppm and
increased to 370 ppm today

24. Human activities deplete atmospheric
ozone
• Life on earth is protected from the damaging
affects of ultraviolet radiation (UV) by a layer of
O3, or ozone.
• Studies suggest that
the ozone layer has
been gradually
“thinning” since 1975.

25. • Probable Reasons for destruction of ozone layer:
– Accumulation of chlorofluorocarbons, chemicals used in
refrigeration and aerosol cans, and in certain manufacturing
processes.
– Increased levels of UV radiation that reach the surface of the
Earth. This radiation has been linked to skin cancer and
cataracts.
• The impact of human activity on the ozone layer is one more
example of how much we are able to disrupt ecosystems and the
entire biosphere.

27. Burning fossil fuel: Cause of acid
precipitation
• The burning of
fossil
fuels
releases
sulfur
oxides and nitrogen
that
react with water
in the atmosphere
to produce sulfuric
and nitric acids.

28. Toxins concentration in successive trophic
levels of food webs
• Humans produce many toxic chemicals that are dumped
into ecosystems.
– These substances are ingested and metabolized by the
organisms in the ecosystems and can accumulate in
the fatty tissues of animals.
– These toxins become more concentrated in successive
trophic levels of a food web, a process called
biological magnification.

29. DDT is a colourless,
crystalline, tasteless and
almost odorless
organochloride known for
its insecticidal properties

30. Balance
• Ecosystem will fail if it do not remain
in balance.
• No community can carry more
organisms than its food, water and
shelter can accommodate.

31. Four Scientific Principles of
Sustainability

32. How do they stay balanced?
•
•
•
•
Adaptation
Migration
Extinction
Give examples on each of the above?
• Provide your thought on ways to balance the
ecosystem in the current scenario?

33. Biodiversity

34. Why Is It Important?
• The biodiversity found in genes, species,
ecosystems and ecosystem processes is vital to
sustaining life on earth.

35. Natural Capital: Major Components of
the Earth’s Biodiversity

36. Biodiversity over time - geologic
• Natural changes due to new species evolving
and becoming extinct
• Extinction events – cleans the slate
– Natural extinction – 90% of species ever alive
are extinct now

37. Genetic Makeup of a Population
• Populations evolve by becoming genetically
different
• Genetic variations is the First step in biological
evolution
– Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells
– Mutations in other cells can happen , but only
reproductive cell mutations are passed on
– Sometimes a mutation can result in a new genetic
trait that gives it a better chance to survive,
sometimes not.

38. Try this…
• Can a fish species willfully grow
limbs and fingers if they are
needed to crawl out of the water
onto dry land?

39. Individuals in Populations
Beneficial Genetic Traits
with
• Natural selection: Second step in biological evolution
– Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction
– Genetic resistance in bacteria, cockroaches
• When environmental conditions change, populations
– Adapt
– Migrate
– Become extinct

40. A group of bacteria,
including genetically
resistant ones, are
exposed to an
antibiotic
Normal
bacterium
Resistant
bacterium
Most of the normal
bacteria die
The genetically
resistant bacteria
start multiplying
Eventually the
resistant strain
replaces the strain
affected by
the antibiotic

41. Three Common Myths about
Evolution through Natural Selection
• “Survival of the fittest” is not “survival of the
strongest”
• Organisms do not develop traits out of need or
want
• No grand plan of nature for perfect adaptation

42. Charles Darwin
There is a grandeur to this view of life (evolution)
While this planet has gone cycling on…
Endless forms most beautiful and wonderful
have been and are being evolved
Can you draw similes of evolution to Corporates/ organisations?

43. Geologic Processes
Selection
Affect
Natural
• Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of life on
earth
– Location of continents and oceans
– Species physically move, or adapt, or form new
species through natural selection
• Tectonic actions: Earthquakes, Volcanic eruptions can
have profound effects on natural selection
– Pollution
– Change in ecosystem

44. 225 million years ago
65 million years ago
135 million years ago
Present

45. Climate Change and Catastrophes
Affect Natural Selection
• Ice ages followed by warming temperatures
Demise of the giants (Sloth, Saber tooth
tigers)
• Collisions between the earth and large
asteroids
– New species
– Extinction

46. Changes in Ice Coverage in the Northern
Hemisphere During the last 18,000 Years

47. Science Focus: Earth Is Just Right
for Life to Thrive
• Certain temperature range (closeness to sun)
• Dependence on water
• Rotation on its axis (how fast or slow we spin)
• Revolution around the sun (changes in season)
• Enough gravitational mass (to hold on to the atmos)

48. What does Evolution mean to
you?
Evidence?

49. The Fossil Record Tells Much of
the Story of Evolution
• Fossils
– Physical evidence of ancient organisms
– Bones, casts, tracks…
– Some reveal what their internal structures
looked like, some their actions
• Have all fossils been discovered?

50. Fossilized Skeleton of an
Herbivore that walked the Earth

51. Questions
Q1) What is the connection
environment and evolution?
between
the
Q2) Will humans evolve to a point where we can
survive in space without a spacesuit or any
protective device? Why or Why not?
Q3) how does pollution effect evolution?

52. How Do Speciation, Extinction, and
Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?
• As environmental conditions change, the balance
between formation of new species and extinction of
existing species determines the earth’s biodiversity.
• Human activities can decrease biodiversity by
causing the premature extinction of species and by
destroying or degrading habitats needed for the
development of new species.

53. Evolution
• Through geographic isolation
– Groups of same species become physically
isolated
– Migration, physical barriers (volcanoes)
• Through reproductive isolation
– Mutation and change by natural selection occur in
isolated geographic populations long enough
– New species when interbreeding produces only
sterile offspring

54. Geographic Isolation Can Lead to
Reproductive Isolation

55. Science Focus: Humans Have Two Ways to Change
the Genetic Traits of Populations
• Artificial selection
• Genetic engineering, gene splicing
• Consider
–
–
–
–
Ethics
Morals
Privacy issues
Harmful effects

56. Genetically Engineered Mice

57. Animation: Transferring genes
into plants

58. Species Diversity its Importance
• A major component of biodiversity
– Species richness (diversity in species)
– Species evenness (abundance of each species)
• Diversity varies with geographical location
– Most species-rich communities
•
•
•
•
Tropical rain forests
Coral reefs
Ocean bottom zone
Large tropical lakes
• Increases the sustainability of ecosystems.

59. Variations in Species Richness

60. Variation in species evenness
• Temperate Forest, Western Ghats, chilka lake

61. Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend
to Be Productive and Sustainable
• Species richness seems to increase
productivity and stability or sustainability
of a location
• More diverse ecosystem, more productive,
greater biomass
• More diverse, more complex web, more
resistant to environmental disturbances

62. What Roles Do Species Play in
Ecosystems?
• Each species plays a specific ecological role
called its niche.
• Any given species may play one or more of
five important roles—native, nonnative,
indicator (defines traits of environment), keystone,
or foundation roles—in a particular
ecosystem.

63. Role of Keystone, Foundation
Species
• Keystone species
– Pollinators
– Top predator( Sharks, Tigers)
– Loss of keystone species lead to population
crashes of other species in ecosystem
• Foundation species
– Create or enhance their habitats, which benefit
others
• Elephants (trails)

64. Species Plays a Unique Role
in Its Ecosystem
• Ecological niche
– Pattern of living, includes everything that affects
survival and reproduction
• Generalist species (mice, humans,
raccoons)
– Broad niche
• Specialist species (Tigers, pandas)
– Narrow niche

65. Specialist Species and Generalist
Species Niches

66. Case Study: Cockroaches:
Nature’s Ultimate Survivors
• Cockroaches
– Generalists
– High reproductive rates
• 10 million annually
– Eat almost anything:
– Finger nail clippings,
electric cords, soap
– Live and breed in all but
arctic environ
– Antennae, knee joints, eyes
Good: food for
higher order
consumers

67. Threats to Biodiversity:
Why Are Amphibians Vanishing?
• Habitat loss and fragmentation
• Prolonged drought
• Pollution
• Increase in UV radiation
• Parasites (worms causing increase in birth defects)
• Viral and fungal diseases
• Climate change
• Overhunting (Asia and France)
• Nonnative predators and competitors

68. Impact of Vanishing Amphibians
• Importance of amphibians
– Sensitive biological indicators of environmental
changes
– Adult amphibians
• Important ecological roles in biological
communities
– Genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products
waiting to be discovered

69. Case Study: Why Should We
Protect Sharks?
• Keystone species
– Eat dead and dying fish in the ocean
– Control other populations
– Strong immune systems
• Wounds do not get infected
• Almost never get cancer
• Could help humans if we understood their immune
system

70. Case Study: Is the Royal Bengal
Tiger worth saving?
Project tiger:
Launched in 1973 by GoI and WWF with 9 tiger reserves
having 268 tigers. In 2001, tiger reserves increased to 27, # of tigers ~1500!!. In
2011, we have 53 tigers reserves. Latest tiger census report released in 2011 by
the National Tiger Conservation Authority, est. tiger population is 1,706. Your
observation?

71. Reflect on these!
Source: Wildlife protection society of India
TIGER DEATHS IN 2014
Mortality
6
Poaching &
Seizures
1
___________________
Total
7
LEOPARD DEATHS IN 2014
Mortality
17
Poaching &
12
Seizures
___________________
Total
29
TIGER DEATHS IN 2013
Mortality
38
Poaching &
42
Seizures
___________________
Total
80
LEOPARD DEATHS IN 2013
Mortality
217
Poaching &
110
Seizures
___________________
Total
327
A tigress believed to have strayed from Jim Corbett National Park, killed its 10th person in six weeks.
Source: CBC News: Feb 10’14. The tiger has been on the prowl across an area spanning some 130
kilometres. "The animal has started attacking humans because it is not getting its natural prey," said Rupek
De, chief wildlife warden of Uttar Pradesh.
•Jumbo concern only gets bigger - In six years, 354 persons killed by elephants in state Orissa, 5 th Dec.,
2013
•Huge number of seized leopard claws puzzles Forest officials, 6th Dec., 2013

72. Why are Tigers important?
• Keystone species
• Presence in food web
• Pathways- keep pathways open, hold back
changes in marshy areas
• Maintain Ecological Balance
– Provide in-situ conservation
(protect its habitat with all other
species). Create national Parks & Sanctuaries
– Establish ex-situ conservation
(for endangered species give
protection in controlled environment viz. botanical garden for plants & zoological
parks for animals)

73. Humans: Saviour or Threat to
biodiversity
• Present day rates exceed geological rates of
extinction. Scientists est. that we are likely to eliminate ~ 10Million
species by 2050
• Present day extinction is across the board – affects
many groups
• Modern extinction associated with spread of
human populations
– Over hunting/fishing
– Habitat destruction – deforestation & coral bleaching

74. Extinction of
large mammals
and birds
corresponds to
the spread of
human
populations

75. Parks & Sanctuaries
Almost 4 % of India's land is under forests. There are 80 national parks and over 441
wildlife sanctuaries in India.
•National Park:
•National parks are formed by Central or State Legislation.
•Status of National Park is higher.
•No human habitation is permitted in the park area.
•Harvesting timbers, cultivation, collection of forest products
are restricted. Eg. Corbet National Park.
•Sanctuary:
•Sanctuaries are formed by the order of State or Central
Government.
•Status of sanctuary is lower.
•Private ownership may be allowed.
•Limited activities are allowed with permission. Eg. ChilikaSanctuary for migrating birds.

76. Case Study: Beej Bachao Aandolan (Save the
seed Movement) & livestocks breeding
• Seed Movement began in Himalayan tarai
• Successfully conserved hundreds of local rice varieties.
• Gene banks collected 34000 cereals & 22000 pulses grown
in India
• 27 breeds of cattle &goats, 8 breeds of buffaloes. Many are
dying out due to misguided adoption of ‘foreign’ things
viz: Jerseys & Holsteins

77. Questions?
Q1) Distinguish between species richness and evenness
Q2) Suppose we have 2 national parks close to each other
surrounded by development. One is a large park and the
other much smaller. Which park is likely to have the
highest species richness? Why?

78. Project Questions
1. Are there regions of your country with large amounts of
biodiversity?
2. What climate conditions/Geologic features have influence on
natural selection in the major biomes of your country?
3. Indicate some unique indicator, keystone, foundation,
invasive and specialist species that live within the borders of
your country?
4. Do the people in your country get most of their food from
within ? Substantiate your answer with examples.

79. Questions
• Q1: What are three ways that the Tigers supports one or more
of the four components of biodiversity within its
environment?
• Q2: What are three examples of how people, in their daily
living, intentionally or unintentionally degrade each of these
types of biodiversity?
• Q3: What are the main differences between Functional and
Ecological Diversity?
What are the main differences
between species and genetic diversity?
• Q4: Why is having a lot of biodiversity on earth so beneficial
to us?

80. Deforestation and soil nutrients
• Distinct differences in storage of biomass &
nutrient cycling between temperate & tropical
forests
• Temperate forests have thick, rich topsoils
– Humus layer of organic detritus on top of subsoil
– Nutrients stored in soils
• Tropical soils are highly weathered (lots of rain)
– Lateritic clays depleted in nutrients
– Thin humus layer
– Nutrients stored in biomass

81. Tropical above ground
storage of biomass & nutrients

82. Deforestation and recovery
• Rainforests – loss of rainforest trees leads to
loss of nutrients & changes in the water
cycle
• Temperate forests recover because nutrients
retained in the soils

83. Deforestation & water cycle & climate
• Elimination of tropical rainforests disrupts regional
water cycle
– Minimizes evapotranspiration (source of H2O to atm)
– Decreases soil moisture and increases runoff
• Increases erosion rates
– Soils form slowly
– 200-1500 yrs to form 2.5 cm of topsoil from bedrock
• General circulation models to predict
– Net temperature increase
– Decrease in soil moisture

84. Biodiversity and deforestation in tropical
areas
• Half of the living species are found in rainforests
• Forest plants have medical value
– Treatment of diseases
• Forest plants have agricultural value
– Need genetic diversity for long-term health (Darwinian
evolution)
– Need variety to limit vulnerability to diseases and pests
– Modern agricultural practices limit diversities
– Centers of genetic diversity for crops come from areas
threatened by development, population pressures,
deforestation
– Seed banks

85. Biodiversity and ecosystem stability
• Relationship is complex
– In some settings environmental stability leads to high
diversity
– In others, high diversity is thought to result from
disturbances of intermediate frequency and intensity
• How does loss of biodiversity impact ecosystem?
– Remove enough species and ecosystem collapses (removal
of predators; invasive species)
– May be that some species aren’t necessary – system
maintained by a few keystone species

86. Causes of deforestation
• Social, political, and economic drivers
• Economic arguments – people and countries
need hard currency (Nepal)
– Motivation not to
– Who will bear the costs of not exploiting
resources?
• Earth will recover, will humans survive?