1. CHAPTER 13– Copyright © 2005
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND SCHOOLING IN AMERICA William Kritsonis
PAGE 60 All Rights Reserved / Forever
This book is protected under the Copyright Act of 1976. Uncited Sources,
Violators will be prosecuted. Courtesy, National FORUM Journals
CHAPTER 13
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND
SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
KEY POINTS
1. Our world continues to be in a technological revolution.
2. The major purpose of educational technology is to facilitate teaching and
learning.
3. Teacher and administrator attitudes and limited training are still barriers to
the effective use of technology in schools
4. Teacher education programs must provide better training for prospective
teachers in using educational technology
5. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) is delivered directly to learners by al-
lowing them to interact with lessons programmed into the computer system
(formerly known as drill and practice programs).
6. Distance Learning/Education is any instructional situation in which the
learner is separated in time or space from the point of origination.
7. Educational technology involves televised lessons broadcast on education-
al television.
8. Instructional Television (ITV) is any planned use of video programs to
meet specific instructional goals regardless of the source of programs.
9. The internet is a world-wide system of linking smaller computer networks
together, based on a packet system of information transfer and using a
common set of communication standards.
10. Multimedia kits are a collection of teaching-learning materials involving
more than one type of medium and organized around a topic.
11. Technology is the use of technical materials and equipment in schools.
12. Telecommunications is a means for communicating over a distance. Any
arrangement for transmitting voice and data in the form of coded signals
through an electronic medium.

2. SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 61
13. Video-Disk Technology is an audio-visual tool that can present slides and
play motion pictures at any time and in any sequence desired. They pro-
vide high quality narration and natural backgrounds.
14. Virtual Reality is a computer-controlled environment in which users expe-
rience multi-sensory immersion and interact with certain phenomena as
they would in the physical world.
15. The major purpose of using technology in the classroom is to facilitate
teaching and the joy of learning.
CHAPTER 13–EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND SCHOOLING
IN AMERICA
A. OVERVIEW
Chapter 13 presents information regarding the use of technology in education.
Various modes of educational technology are presented, including instructional
television, closed-circuit television, videodisk technology, and multimedia
computers. The majority of the chapter deals with computers, the current major
area of technology in schools. Creative uses of technology are also presented.
B. KEY TERMS–DEFINITIONS
COMPRESSED VIDEO - video images that have been processed to remove
redundant information, thereby reducing the amount of bandwidth required to
transmit them. Because only changes in the image are transmitted, movements
appear jerky compared with full-motion video.
COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION (CAI) - instruction delivered di-
rectly to learner by allowing them to interact with lessons programmed into the
computer system (formerly known as drill and practice programs).
COMPUTER MULTIMEDIA - a computer’s hardware and software system
for the composition and display of presentations that incorporate text, audio,
and still and motion images.
DISTANCE LEARNING/EDUCATION - any instructional situation in which
the learner is separated in time or space from the point of origination, charac-
terized by limited access to the teacher and other learners.
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY - technology applied to educational prac-
tices, primarily instruction.

3. CHAPTER 13–EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
PAGE 62
INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION (ITV) - any planned use of video programs
to meet specific instructional goals regardless of the source of the programs
(including commercial broadcasts or the setting) in which they are used (in-
cluding business and industry training).
INTERNET - a world-wide system of linking smaller computer networks to-
gether, based on a packet system of information transfer and using a common
set of communication standards.
MULTIMEDIA KIT - a collection of teaching-learning materials involving
more than one type of medium and organized around a topic.
TECHNOLOGY - use of technical materials and equipment in schools.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS - a means for communicating over a distance,
specifically, any arrangement for transmitting voice and data in the form of
coded signals, through an electronic medium.
VIDEO DISK TECHNOLOGY - audio-visual tool can present slides and play
motion pictures at any time and in any sequence desired. They provide high
quality narration and natural backgrounds.
VIRTUAL REALITY - a computer-controlled environment in which users ex-
perience multi-sensory immersion and interact with certain phenomena as they
would in the physical world.
C. SOME PRECEDING THOUGHTS
If this book had been written in the 1970s, this chapter would have dealt
with media such as 35mm camera, opaque projector, filmstrip projectors,
slide projectors, the record player, and the reel-to-reel movie projector. But
now this chapter will focus on:
1. What is instructional technology?
2. What are some advantages and disadvantages of instructional tele-
vision?
3. How can closed-circuit television be used in instruction?
4. How are multimedia kits used in schools?
5. What are some advantages and disadvantages of multimedia kits?
6. What is the history of using computers in education? (Including
statistics on internet connectivity in classrooms)
7. What is computer-assisted instruction?
8. What is distance learning?

4. SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 63
9. What are some advantages and disadvantages of distance learn-
ing?
10. What is virtual reality?
11. What are some advantages and disadvantages of virtual reality?
12. What is computer multimedia and hypermedia?
13. What are some advantages and disadvantages of computer hyper-
media?
14. How can software be evaluated?
15. What new directions does educational technology need?
1. What is instructional television?
Televised lessons broadcast for schools usually on educational television.
2. What are some advantages and disadvantages of instructional televi-
sion?
ADVANTAGES:
a. increased student motivation;
b. illustration of material that is difficult to teach;
c. ability of teachers to use a common stimulus for teaching;
d. information is transmitted, color, moving pictures;
e. programs can be transmitted over long distances;
f. cost per student is low;
g. learners can even be reached in their own homes.
DISADVANTAGES:
a. the complexity of the technology creates opportunities for problems;
b. many programs are poorly developed and produced;
c. weather conditions may disrupt signals;
d. images received on television monitors may be too small for large
classes;
e. ITV is a one-way mode of communication.
3. How can closed-circuit television be used in instruction?
a. as a substitute for the science laboratory;
b. enable teachers to focus students’ attention to a particular task while
neutralizing the effects of the surrounding environment;

5. CHAPTER 13–EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
PAGE 64
c. enable enlargement or magnification of small items on the screen for
easy viewing and detailed recommendations;
d. introduce a variety of effects by using different cameras with different
lighting and angles;
e. insert enriching sections during the lecture and/or explanation of activi-
ties;
f. provide students with the opportunity to see successful experiments.
Unsuccessful experiments are discarded or taped over so students see
only what should occur.
4. How are multimedia kits used in school?
Whether using a commercially or teacher made multimedia kit, the pur-
pose is to give the learner a chance at firsthand learning by being able to
touch, to observe, to experiment, to wonder, to decide.
5. What are some advantages and disadvantages of multimedia kits?
ADVANTAGES:
a. arouse interest because they are multi-sensory allowing students to
touch and manipulate real objects and to inspect unusual specimens up
close;
b. can encourage cooperation by being an ideal mechanism for stimulat-
ing small group project work;
c. easily stored and transported.
DISADVANTAGES:
a. multimedia kits can be more expensive than other conventional learn-
ing methods;
b. time consuming to produce and maintain the materials;
c. replacement of lost components can make the kit frustrating to use.
6. What is the history of using computers in education?
In the 1960s and 1970s, the idea of using computers for educational pur-
poses received a great deal of attention. They were designed for carrying
out complicated mathematical calculations, for which they were very ef-
fective if the user understood the highly sophisticated language required to
operate the hardware. Microcomputers were developed around 1975. By
1980, approximately one million microcomputers were already in use. By
1995, microcomputers had made computer technology readily accessible
to most school districts. By 2002, the movement to incorporate computer

6. SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 65
technology into education has been led by teachers who were interested in
adding a new dimension in their classrooms. The microcomputer coupled
with internet connectivity has opened a whole new world to educators and
students. About 95% of all schools have internet access and 63% of all
classrooms have internet access.
7. What is computer-assisted instruction?
Computer Assisted Instruction is the interaction between the learner and
the computer. The student is an active participant in the learning process.
There is a direct two-way communication between the learner and the
computer. This takes place in the form of questions, responses, and feed-
back. This allows for individual pacing and immediate feedback, yet limits
human interaction.
8. What is distance learning?
Distance learning is a form of education that is characterized by the physi-
cal separation of learner from the teacher, an organized instructional pro-
gram, technological media and two-way communication capabilities be-
tween the instructor and the students.
9. What are some advantages and disadvantages of distance learning?
ADVANTAGES:
a. provides opportunities for students in remote areas to receive advanced
courses especially when certified educators are not available in the re-
mote area;
b. allows students or adults to collaborate from different locations.
DISADVANTAGES:
a. cost is a major consideration for setting up both the distance learning
classroom and the remote site;
b. technical problems may interrupt the instruction and may create confu-
sion and frustration for the instructor and students;
c. inexperienced instructors may not feel comfortable teaching in this
type of setting.
10. What is virtual reality?
Virtual reality is a computer-generated, three-dimensional environment
where the user can operate as an active participant. Because Virtual Reali-
ty places the user into the virtual environment, it provides an opportunity
to interact with that environment in a unique way, giving the user the “ulti-
mate” chance to grasp new ideas.

7. CHAPTER 13–EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
PAGE 66
11. What are some advantages and disadvantages of virtual reality?
ADVANTAGES:
a. creates a realistic world without subjecting viewers to actual or imag-
ined danger or hazards;
b. provides students with the opportunity to explore places not feasible in
the real world;
c. allows students the opportunity to experiment with simulated environ-
ments.
DISADVANTAGES:
a. equipment can be extremely expensive;
b. technology is very complex and does not lend itself to most classroom
use;
c. limited software available.
12. What is computer multimedia and hypermedia?
Computer multimedia refers to any combination of two or more media for-
mats that are integrated to form an informational or instructional program.
The system incorporates the computer as a display device, management
tool, and source of text, pictures, graphics, and sounds. Hypermedia refers
to computer software that uses elements of text, graphics, video, and audio
connected in such a way that the user can easily move within the informa-
tion.
13. What are some advantages and disadvantages of computer hyperme-
dia?
ADVANTAGES:
a. opportunity for deep involvement and capturing and holding the studen-
t’s interest;
b. multi-sensory with the incorporation of sounds and images along with
text;
c. students can connect ideas from different media sources;
d. teachers and students can easily create their own hypermedia files.
DISADVANTAGES:
a. users can get confused or lost in “cyberspace” when using hypermedia
programs;

8. SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 67
b. students whose learning style requires more structured guidance may
become frustrated;
c. can be time consuming and require more time for students to reach pre-
specified objectives.
14. How can software be evaluated?
a. specify the overall goals of the implementation procedures;
b. select appropriate software;
c. develop software support materials;
d. randomly assign students to comparable groups;
e. schedule and implement computer time for students;
f. test student skills at regular intervals;
g. evaluate the success of the software implementation procedures;
h. evaluate the results of the issues examined.
15. What new directions does educational technology need?
a. Educators must learn to integrate the technology into their content so
that the technology reinforces the standards that are being taught.
b. Educators must gain an understanding of the history of technology, the
changing role of technology, the social and psychological impact of
technology, and the implications of current changes for education.
c. Educators must take a hard look at traditional goals, particularly in the
area of literacy.
d. Educators must devise new definitions of classroom learning consistent
with the revolution in the cognitive sciences.
e. Educators must find a new metaphor for the learning environment; the
school as factory is anathema.
f. Educators must abandon the lockstep, competency-based curriculum
and devise new instructional strategies.
g. Educators must not only know about the electronic technologies, but
they must also learn how to develop software for use with the visual
media and the computer that facilitates learning.
h. Educators need to devise a curriculum whose content prepares students
for thinking “by” computers, thinking “about” computers, and thinking
“with” computers.
i. Education must emerge from its disciplinary narrowness.

9. CHAPTER 13–EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
PAGE 68
16. What are some creative uses of technology in classrooms?
a. Technology increases student motivation, and motivated students are
more receptive, more engaged, and more likely to learn.
b. Technology promotes cooperation and collaboration among students
and good teachers can capitalize on these opportunities. Cooperative
learning approaches with technology give students with different tal-
ents a chance to excel.
c. In classrooms with computers, conversations between teachers and stu-
dents and among students themselves become deeper and more probing.
d. Technology use encourages teacher-as-facilitator approaches.
e. Technology promotes a “balance of power” between the teacher and
his or her students.
f. With technological tools, students show more persistence in solving
problems.
g. Technology encourages varied methods of assessment.
h. Despite all the challenges of a one-computer/one internet-connection
classroom, even this classroom environment enables good teachers to
work effectively with diverse students.
i. Technology fosters increased and improved oral and written communi-
cation.
j. Technology enables opportunities for more depth of understanding, but
the breadth of the curriculum is still problematic.
k. Technology provides increased opportunities for thematic, interdisci-
plinary exploration; teachers can use these interdisciplinary connec-
tions to further engage and excite students.
l. Technology makes classroom activities “feel” more real-world and rel-
evant, and students often take these activities more seriously.
Source: McGrath, B. (1998). Partners in learning: Twelve ways technology changes the teacher-student
relationship. T.H.E. Journal, 25(9), 58-51. Adapted with permission.
D. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES – NONE

10. SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 69
E. REVIEW ITEMS
True-False
1. The major purpose of educational technology is to facilitate teaching and
learning.
2. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) does not allow students to interact
with lessons programmed into the computer system.
3. Distance Learning/Education occurs when the learner is separated in time
or space from the point of origin.
4. Educational technology involves televised lessons broadcast on education-
al television.
5. Virtual Reality is a computer controlled environment in which users expe-
rience multi-sensory immersion and interact with certain phenomena as
they would in reality.
Multiple Choice
1. Instructional Television (ITV) is any _______.
a. form of duplication
b. planned use of video programs to meet specific goals
c. method to reduce interaction between the learner and teacher
d. all of the above
2. Telecommunications is the means for _______.
a. communicating over a distance b. limiting the use of technology
c. helping to increase frustration d. all of the above
3. Video-Disk Technology is _______.
a. an audio tool to increase learning
b. a visual tool to increase learning
c. an audio-visual tool that can present slides and play motion pictures at
any time and in any sequence desired
d. all of the above
4. Virtual Reality is a _______.
a. computer-controlled environment b. non-controlled environ-
ment
c. semi-controlled environment d. all the above
5. The purpose of technology in the classroom is to _______.

11. CHAPTER 13–EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
PAGE 70
a. hinder learning b. facilitate learning
c. thwart learning d. all the above