This document provides an overview of ethical theories, including both traditional and contemporary approaches. It discusses the normative nature of ethical theories and describes some key traditional consequentialist theories like utilitarianism, egoism, and hedonism. It also outlines non-consequentialist approaches including deontology based on duties and virtues. Contemporary ethics discussed include ethical relativism and postmodern approaches. The document serves as an introductory guide to the major concepts and debates in ethical theory.

1. BUSINESS ETHICS
2. ETHICAL THEORY
2013/2014
Ana Cláudia Campos
1º Semestre

2. 2.1 Normativity of Ethical Theories
2.2 Traditional Ethics
2.3 Contemporary Ethics

3. 2.1 Normativity of Ethical Theories

4. Ethical theories can be said either
descriptive or normative .

5. Ethical
Theories
Descriptive
Normative
Describe
ethical
phenomena
Provide
general rules
and principles
of behaviour

6. A descriptive approach to ethics
attempts to describe the moral systems
of groups or societies.
As such it involves empirical research
on individuals, groups, and societies in
order to uncover moral beliefs.

7. Research Topics Covered by
Descriptive Ethics
•
Values
•
Ethical ideals
•
Moral virtues
•
Wrong and right actions and behaviours
•
Moral systems (relativism)…

8. Disciplines Related to the Study of
Descriptive Ethics
•
Psychology
•
Biology
•
Sociology
•
Anthropology
•
Cultural Studies…

9. Ethical theories are said to be
normative if they propose “to prescribe
the morally correct way of acting”.
(Crane & Matten, 2010)

10. Normative theories of ethics or
«moral theories» are meant to help
us figure out what actions are right
and wrong.
(Gray, 2010) [http://ethicalrealism.wordpress.com/2010/08/20/ethical-theories/]

11. “Ethical theories are the rules and
principles that determine right and
wrong for a given situation”.
(Crane & Matten, 2010)

12. Normative ethical theories attempt to
answer two main questions:
(1) What is the good life for men?
(2) How ought men to behave?

13. Normative ethical theories might be
interpreted as answers to requests for
advice on how to deal with aspects of
daily living

14. 2.2 Traditional Ethics

15. Traditional ethical theories developed
mainly in Europe due to the work of
many philosophers, from ancient times
until modernity (e.g.: Aristotle,
Epicurus, Seneca, J. Locke, A. Smith,
J. Stuart-Mill…)

16. “These traditional theories have their origins in
modernism, which emerged roughly during the
18th century Enlightenment era. ‘Modern’ thinkers
strove for a rational, scientific explanation of the
world and aimed at comprehensive, inclusive,
theoretically coherent theories to explain nature,
man, and society”
(Crane and Matten, 2010)

17. Traditional ethical theories are the
normative theories adopting an
absolutist point of view on ethics
(ethical absolutism)

18. Ethical Absolutism
There are eternal, universally applicable
moral principles to concrete situations and
contexts. Right and wrong are objective
qualities we can rationally determine in
human actions, and so, as such, they exist
outside individuals

19. Traditional
Ethical
Theories
Consequentialists
Utilitarianism
Egoism
Non-consequentialists
Hedonism
Deontology
(Kant, Ross)
Agent’s Virtue
(Aristotle)

20. Motivation/Principles/
Duties
Non-consequentialist ethics
Action
Outcomes
Consequentialist ethics
p. 97

21. Consequentialist Ethical Theory
An ethical theory which bases moral
judgement on the outcomes of an
action is called Consequentialist (or
Teleological).

22. General Principle
Of all the things a person might do at
any given moment, the morally right
action is the one with the best overall
consequences
(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

23. Corollaries
Whether an act is right or wrong depends only
on the results of that act;
The more good consequences an act produces,
the better or more right that act is;
A person should choose the action that
maximizes good consequences
People should live so as to maximize good
consequences

24. Utilitarianism
An action is morally right if it results in
the greatest amount of good/happiness
for the greatest amount of people
affected by the action
(Crane & Matten, 2010)

25. “After assessing as best we can the likely
results of each action, not just in the short
term but in the long run as well, we are to
choose the course of conduct that brings
about the greatest net happiness”
(Shaw, 2011)

26. From
an
utilitarian
point
of
view,
GOOD/HAPPINESS may be understood as:
Freedom
Knowledge
Life
Pleasure
Political Rights
…

27. Main Corollaries
The rightness or wrongness of an action is
separated from the goodness or badness of the
agent (worth of action ≠ worth of agent)
The right moral action is the one that maximizes
the good
The general principle of utility does not provide a
rule to decide on the moral worth of an action in
face of actual consequences and foreseen
consequences, except that we should do what we
have most reason to believe will bring about the
best consequences of the known available
alternatives

28. Act Utilitarianism
“The measure of the value of an act is the amount by which it
increases general utility or happiness. An act is to be preferred
to its alternatives according to the extent of the increase it
achieves, compared to the extent the alternatives would
achieve. An action is thus good or bad in proportion to the
amount it increases (or diminishes) general happiness,
compared to the amount that could have been achieved by
acting differently. Act utilitarianism is distinctive not only in the
stress on utility, but in the fact that each individual action is the
primary object of ethical evaluation.”
http://www.answers.com/topic/act-utilitarianism

29. Rule Utilitarianism
“It maintains that the correct principles of right and
wrong are those that would maximize happiness if
society adopted them. Rule utilitarianism applies the
utilitarian standard not directly to individual actions
but rather to the choice of the moral principles that
are to guide individual action.”
(Shaw, 2011)

30. Prominent Proponents
J. Bentham
(1748-1832)
J. Stuart-Mill
(1806-1873)

31. Egoism
The doctrine according to which the
correct moral action is the one that
meets the self-interest of individuals.

32. Main Corollary
The most important moral principle is the
principle of self-interest, personal advantage
or gain

33. Moral egoism is based on psychological
egoism,
behaviour
according
is
to
motivated
which
by
all
human
self-interest
(=welfare, well-being).
Self-interest is understood as either:
• one’s desire (self-regarding / not selfregarding)
or
• possession of states independently of being
desired (virtue, knowledge, peace…)

34. Moral egoists do not necessarily claim:
that all people should be egoists and act
egoistically (=every individual should pursue
self-interest)
that seeking pleasure, doing harm to others,
behaving disonestly and so on are good things
in themselves but only as far as doing so brings
us any kind of personal advantage

35. Prominent Proponents
H. Sidgwick
(1838 -1900)
A. Rand
(1905-1982)
F. Nietzsche
(1844 -1900)

36. Hedonism
The doctrine that pleasure is the sole
good. (…)
Men not only in fact seek pleasure, but
further they ought to do so since
pleasure alone is good. (…)
(Popkin & Stroll, 1956)

37. Main Corollaries
To say "all pleasure is intrinsically good" is not to say
"all pleasure is good, simply."
Though pleasure is the only intrinsically and ultimate
good, it is not the only thing desirable, other things
are desirable at least as a means to something
(peace, money, education…)
Some pleasures are not good because they lead to
pain instead of pleasure (taking drugs, getting drunk,
making fun of other people…)

38. Prominent Proponents
Epicurus
(341BC - 270BC)
Aristippus of Cyrene
(435BC – 356 BC)

39. Non-consequentialist Ethical Theory
Any ethical theory which bases moral
judgement not on the outcomes
(consequences) of an action but on its
principle (intrinsic properties) or on the
agent’s character.

40. Nonconsequentialist
Deontology
(Kant, Ross)
Agent’s Virtue
(Aristotle)

41. Deontology
An ethical theory which bases moral
judgement on the moral principle (duty)
underlying the action, and thus the action’s
intrinsic features, is called Deontological.

42. Main Corollaries
Morality is a matter of duty, compliance to a
moral law
Whether something is right or wrong doesn’t
depend on its consequences
Actions are right or wrong in themselves
We have duties regarding our own actions

43. The ethical theories proposed by I. Kant
and W. D. Ross are called a
deontological philosophies because they
assume the moral value of an action to
depend on the agent’s intention relative
to it (namely, complying to the moral
principle) rather than its consequences.

44. Prominent Proponents
I. Kant
(1784-1804)
W. D. Ross
(1877-1971)

45. “Kant believed that moral reasoning is not
based on factual knowledge and that the
results of our actions do not determine
whether they are right or wrong.”
(Shaw, 2011)

46. According to Kant, human action is motivated
either by reason or happiness
So morality depends either on reason or
happiness
Happiness is conditional because it differs
from individual to individual and it can be
either good or bad

47. Reason
alone
is
universal,
thus
unconditional, so morality must be based on
reason in order to become truly universal
Kant named this moral universal reason “the
Good Will” (= the power of rational moral
choice)

48. The Good Will is good because it motivates
us to act out of duty, not of inclination, desire
or personal interest/gain
The Good Will makes us act according to the
moral law, and in order to know it we must
check if it conforms to the Categorical
Imperative.

49. The CI is imperative because it is a command. It
commands us to exercise our wills in a particular
way, not to perform some action or other.
The CI is categorical in virtue of applying to us
unconditionally, or simply because we possess
rational wills, without reference to any ends that we
might or might not have. It does not apply to us on
the condition that we have antecedently adopted
some goal for ourselves.

50. Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Formula of Universal Law: "Act as if the maxim of your action
were to secure through your will a universal law of nature"
Formula of Humanity: "Act so that you treat humanity,
whether in your own person or that of another, always as an
end and never as a means only"
Formula of Autonomy: “Act as if you were through your
maxims a law making member of a kingdom of ends."

51. According to W. D. Ross, there are several prima
facie duties that we can use to determine what,
concretely, we ought to do.
A prima facie duty is a duty that is obligatory
other things equal, that is, unless it is overridden
by another duty or duties. Where there is a prima
facie duty to do something, there is at least a
fairly strong moral reason in favor of doing it.

52. An example of a prima facie duty is the duty to
keep
promises.
"Unless
stronger
moral
considerations override, one ought to keep a
promise made.“
By contrast with prima facie duties, our actual or
concrete duty is the duty we should perform in
the particular situation of choice. Whatever one's
actual duty is, one is morally bound to perform it.

53. Ross’s Prima Facie Duties (The Right and the Good, 1930)
Fidelity: obligation to keep a promise
Reparation: obligation to repair the harm
Gratitude: obligation to recognize a granted benefit
and express it
Justice: obligation to fairly distribute the good
Beneficence: obligation to do good to someone
Self-improvement: obligation to make yourself a
better person
Non-maleficence: obligation to not harm anyone

54. The Agent’s Virtue
According to a Virtue Theory, the central
moral concept is that of the morally good
character or morally good disposition. It
analyzes the rightness or wrongness of
individual choices indirectly in terms of the
character or dispositions of the agent making
the choices

55. “Virtue ethics contends that morally correct
actions are those undertaken by actors with
virtuous characters. Therefore, the formation
of a virtuous character is the first step towards
morally correct behaviour.”
(Crane & Matten, 2010)

56. Main Corollaries
Moral virtue is simply a matter of performing well
in the function of being human
Practice is very important to achieve excellence
The motivation for being good is not based in a
divine legislator or a set of moral laws but rather
in the same kind of perception of excellence that
might be found in anything else that exists to
perform a function

57. We can only be held responsible for actions we
perform voluntarily and not for cases involving
physical compulsion or ignorance.
The best measure of moral judgment is choice,
because choice is made voluntarily by means of
rational deliberation.
People always choose to aim at the good, but
they’re often ignorant of what is good and so aim
at some apparent good instead, which is in fact a
vice.

58. Aristotle
(384 BCE – 322 BCE)
"So it follows, since virtue of character itself is a
mean state and always concerned with pleasures
and pains, while vice lies in excess and deficiency,
and has to do with the same things as virtue, that
virtue is the state of the character which chooses the
mean, relative to us in things pleasant and
unpleasant…"
(Eudemian Ethics, Book II, Chapter 10)

59. Virtue is, in a moral sense, a product of habit
Virtue is a mean state or a middle ground
between two other states, one involving excess
and the other deficiency
The middle ground that virtue encompasses is
representative
of
an
individual's
ideas
of
pleasure and pain
A portion of this is inherited naturally and another
portion is expectation towards punishment.

60. “According to Aristotle's ethical theory, the
virtuous person exhibits the joint excellence of
reason and of character. The virtuous person
not only knows what the good thing to do is,
she is also emotionally attached to it. In
addition, these two excellences, or virtues, are
intimately connected, so that the one cannot
be had without the other.”
http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/24181-the-virtue-of-aristotle-s-ethics/

62. 2.3 Contemporary Ethics

63. Contemporary ethical theories and
approaches developed mainly in the
western world from early 20th century on

64. These new approaches to ethical thinking
and theorizing mirror changes in how people
think about societies and their relations with
cultural/intellectual achievements, such as
philosophical thinking…..

65. Since scientists and philosophers started
criticizing modernist views on knowledge,
scientific, universal truths, and human
progress based on reason, the path was
open to alternative ways of thinking about
ethics…

66. Traditional ethics have been considered:
Too abstract, objective and impersonal
Too rational
Too reductionist
Too imperialist

67. Contemporary
Ethical Theories
Ethical
Relativism
Postmodern
Ethics
Analytical
Ethics
Others
…

68. Ethical Relativism
“The theory according to which right and wrong are
determined by what one’s society says is right and
wrong. (…)
For the ethical relativist there is no absolute ethical
standard independent of cultural context, no
criterion of right and wrong by which to judge other
than that of particular societies. In short, what
morality requires is relative to society.” (Shaw, 2011)

69. “Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is
relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an
action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the
society in which it is practiced. The same action may be
morally right in one society but be morally wrong in another.
(…) The only moral standards against which a society's
practices can be judged are its own. If ethical relativism is
correct, there can be no common framework for resolving
moral disputes or for reaching agreement on ethical matters
among members of different societies.”
http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/ethicalrelativism.html

70. Some problems with ethical relativism:
It undermines any moral criticism of the practices of
other societies as long as their actions conform to their
own standards;
There is no such thing as ethical progress: although
moralities can change, they cannot get better or worse;
It makes no sense for people to criticize principles or
practices accepted by their own society; whatever a
society takes to be right really is right for it; reformers or
minorities can never be right in moral matters
(Shaw, 2011)

71. Postmodern Ethics
“Postmodern ethics is an approach that locates
morality beyond the sphere of rationality in an
emotional ‘moral impulse’ towards others. It
encourages individual actors to question everyday
practices and rules, and to listen to and follow their
emotions, inner convictions, and ‘gut feelings’ about
what they think is right and wrong in a particular
situation”. (Crane & Matten, 2010)

72. Postmodern ethics emphasize the following in terms
of ethical reasoning and analysis:
Holistic approach: in ethical judgement and decision making,
there is no separation between private and professional
realms
Examples rather than principles: ethical reasoning is not
embodied in rules and principles but in people’s experiences,
narratives and inner convictions
Think local, act local: ethics is about local rules applicable to
single issues and contexts
Preliminary character: since ethical decisions go far beyond
rationality, ethical reasoning is a constant learning process

73. Analytical Ethics
“Analytical approaches to ethics have
concentrated on meta-ethics. They tend (…)
not to answer moral questions or to address
substantive moral problems directly but
rather to be concerned with the status of
ethical judgements and the character of
moral reasoning.”
http://www.tlrp.org/capacity/rm/wt/standish/s3_ethics.html

74. “A term for any analysis of moral concepts, but as a
distinct approach it starts with G. E. Moore 's
Principia Ethica (1913). It claims that the
fundamental task of ethics is not to discuss
substantive moral questions and to seek solutions
for them, but rather to examine the meaning of
moral terms such as “good”, “ duty”, “right”, “ought ”
and to make them as clear and precise as possible.”
http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405106795_chunk_g9781
4051067952_ss1-116

75. “It then evolved into the linguistic analysis of moral
judgments, their types and their functions. This
development was represented by Ayer 's account of
morality, Stevenson 's emotivism , and Hare 's
prescriptivism…”

76. “Another dimension of analytic ethics is to examine moral
reasoning and the basis for distinguishing moral
judgments from other value judgments. This is
represented especially in the work of Stephen Toulmin.
Analytic ethics can be viewed as synonymous with metaethics . In the 1960s, as the distinction between metaethics and normative ethics came into question, analytic
ethics as a distinctive approach also lost favor. Many
moral philosophers now believe that ethics should
investigate both moral terms and moral questions.”

77. Others…
Feminist ethics (Maier, 1997, Borgerson, 2007)
Ethics of discourse (Habermas, 1990)
Contemporary virtue ethics (MacIntyre, 1984)

78. Further Readings
Blackburn, S. (2009). Ethics: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press
Blackburn, S. (2003). Being Good: A Short Introduction to Ethics, Oxford University
Press
Borgerson, J. L. (2007). On the Harmony of Feminist Ethics and Business Ethics,
Business and Society Review , 112(4), 477–509
Copp, D. (ed.) (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Ethical Theory, Oxford University
Press
David Gottlieb, P. (2009). The Virtue of Aristotle's Ethics, Cambridge UP
Hare, R. (1952). The Language of Morals, Oxford
Maier, M. (1997). Gender Equity, Organizational Transformation and Challenger,
Journal of Business Ethics, 16(9), 943-962
Russell, D.C. (ed.) (2013). The Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics , Cambridge
University Press
Singer, P. (1979). Practical Ethics, Cambridge