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AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates
        The Air Force Office of Scientific Research has created a strong legacy of
Nobel Prize winning research.
        One of the most highly coveted and recognized awards, the Nobel Prize
recognizes those who contribute significant achievements in the areas of
physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, peace, and economic
sciences (the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of
Alfred Nobel). The Nobel Foundation was established in 1900, and in 1901 the
Nobel Prize became the first international award to be given on an annual basis.
Established as outlined in his last will and testament, Dr. Alfred Nobel stated,
“…the whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following
way…annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the
preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit to mankind.” For over
one hundred years, Nobel laureates in the fields of physics, chemistry,
economics and physiology or medicine have been the recognized leaders in their
respective fields, accomplishing research at the very edge of the frontiers of
science.
        Since its establishment in 1951, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research
(AFOSR) has sponsored 70 researchers who went on to become Nobel
laureates. On average, these laureates received AFOSR funding 16 years prior
to winning their Nobel awards.               The accomplishments of these laureates
demonstrate the astute ability of AFOSR program managers to choose world-
class researchers to address Air Force requirements and advance Air Force
programs. The following descriptions of the work performed by AFOSR-funded
Nobel recipients recognize the remarkable scientific achievements that have
contributed to the significant United States Air Force advantage on the battlefield.
AFOSR has funded 35 laureates in Physics, 24 in Chemistry, eight in Physiology
or Medicine, and three in Economics.*
________________________________________________________________
 *Select quotes in the following descriptions of respective Nobel Laureate accomplishments are
from: "All Nobel Prizes". Nobelprize.org. 28 Jun 2010 http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/all.



                                                                                                 1
AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates
      Award      AFOSR        Award          Name
      Year    Support Began   Type

 1.   1955       1954         Physics     Polykarp Kusch
 2.   1955       1954         Physics     Willis E. Lamb
 3.   1956       1953         Physics     John Bardeen*
 4.   1960       1952         Chemistry   Willard Libby
 5.   1961       1953         Physics     Robert Hofstadter
 6.   1963       1958         Physics     Eugene P. Wigner
 7.   1964       1953         Physics     Charles H. Townes
 8.   1966       1952         Chemistry   Robert S. Mulliken
 9.   1967       1953         Physics     Hans Albrecht Bethe
10.   1967       1959         Medicine    Ragnar Granit
11.   1967       1962         Chemistry   George Porter
12.   1968       1966         Chemistry   Lars Onsager
13.   1969       1958         Physics     Murray Gell-Mann
14.   1970       1959         Medicine    Ulf Von Euler
15.   1972       1953         Physics     John Bardeen*
16.   1972       1959         Physics     John R. Schrieffer
17.   1973       1961         Medicine    Nikolaas Tinbergen
18.   1973       1968         Physics     Brian D. Josephson
19.   1974       1961         Chemistry   Paul J. Flory
20.   1976       1959         Chemistry   William N. Lipscomb
21.   1977       1968         Physics     Philip W. Anderson
22.   1977       1964         Physics     John H. Van Vleck
23.   1977       1954         Chemistry   Ilya Prigogine
24.   1978       1962         Economics   Herbert A. Simon
25.   1979       1958         Physics     Sheldon L. Glashow
26.   1979       1962         Physics     Abdus Salam
27.   1979       1958         Physics     Steven Weinberg
28.   1980       1959         Chemistry   Walter Gilbert
29.   1981       1975         Physics     Nicolaas Bloembergen
30.   1981       1956         Physics     Kai M. Siegbahn
31.   1981       1981         Physics     Arthur Schawlow
32.   1981       1959         Phys/Med    David H. Hubel
33.   1981       1959         Phys/Med    Thorsten N. Wiesel
34.   1981       1962         Chemistry    Kenichi Fukui
35.   1981        1980        Chemistry    Roald Hoffman


                                                                 2
Award    AFOSR                    Award                Name
       Year Support Began               Type

36.   1983             1961             Physics          S. Chandrasekhar
37.   1983             1961             Physics          William A. Fowler
38.   1986             1981             Chemistry        John C. Polanyi
39.   1986             1979             Chemistry        Dudley R. Herschbach
40.   1986             1971             Chemistry        Yuan T. Lee
41.   1987             1962             Chemistry        Donald J. Cram
42.   1988             1970             Physics          Melvin Schwartz
43.   1990             1968             Chemistry        Elias J. Corey
44.   1990             1961             Physics          Jerome I. Friedman
45.   1990             1961             Physics          Henry W. Kendall
46.   1992             1962             Chemistry        Rudolph A. Marcus
47.   1995             1995             Chemistry        Mario Molina
48.   1996             1972             Chemistry        Richard E. Smalley
49.   1997             1988             Physics          Steven Chu
50.   1998             1985             Physics          Daniel C. Tsui
51.   1999             1986             Chemistry        Ahmed Zewail
52.   2000             1988             Chemistry        Alan J. Heeger
53.   2000             1970             Chemistry        Alan G. MacDiarmid
54.   2000             1958             Physics          Jack S. Kilby
55    2000             1995             Physics          Herbert Kroemer
56.   2000             1984             Medicine         Paul Greengard
57.   2000             1963             Medicine         Eric R. Kandel
58.   2001             1990             Physics          Wolfgang Ketterle
59.   2002             1975             Chemistry        John B. Fenn
60.   2002             1977             Economics        Daniel Kahneman
61.   2003             1956             Medicine          Paul C. Lauterbur
62.   2005             1990             Physics           Theodor W. Hansch
63.   2005             1991             Physics           John L. Hall
64.   2005             1962             Physics           Roy J. Glauber
65.   2005             1987             Chemistry         Robert H. Grubbs
66.   2005             1960             Economics         Thomas C. Schelling
67.   2006             1985             Physics           George F. Smoot
68.   2008             1965             Physics          Yoichiro Nambu
69.   2010             2008             Physics           Andre Geim
70.   2010             2008`            Physics          Konstantin Novoselov
71.   2011             1999             Chemistry         Daniel Shechtman
      *Note: John Bardeen awarded Physics Nobel in 1956 and 1972.   (Current: August 2011)




                                                                                             3
Polykarp Kusch (Columbia University, New York, NY)
Willis Lamb (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
PHYSICS: 1955


       In the area of Physics, many breakthroughs have occurred with the aid of
AFOSR funding.      In 1955, Kusch and Lamb shared the prize for "precision
determination of the magnetic moment of the electron" and "discoveries
concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum," respectively.
       Prior to his laureate, Kusch studied the effects of magnetic fields on
beams of atoms with Nobel Laureate Dr. Isidor Rabi, who had a profound
influence   on   Kusch's   research.    Through    diligence   and   effort,   Kusch
demonstrated that magnetic properties of electrons were not consistent with
existing theories. He accurately measured the magnetic moment of the electron
and its behavior in hydrogen and numerous atomic, molecular, and nuclear
properties by radio-frequency beam techniques.
       Lamb joined the faculty of Colombia University in 1938, and worked in the
radiation laboratory alongside Kusch. In 1947, Lamb applied new techniques to
measuring the hyperfine structure of lines appearing in the spectrum of light and
found their positions to be slightly different from theoretical predictions. He later
devised microwave techniques for examining the spectral lines of helium. The
varied scope of Lamb's research ranged from such diverse areas as the
fluctuation in cosmic ray showers and order-disorder problems, to the ejection of
electrons by metastable atoms.
       The research by these two winners resulted in the development of
techniques for microwave interaction with atoms and atomic beams, now used in
many technological applications.
       One important application to the Air Force and within the civilian economy
is the cesium beam atomic clock, an essential part of the Global Positioning
System (GPS).      Without the incredibly accurate time-keeping capabilities of
atomic clocks, the GPS would not be possible.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1954



                                                                                   4
John Bardeen (University of Illinois, Urbana, IL)
PHYSICS: 1956


       Dr. John Bardeen was the first scientist to win two Nobel prizes in the
same category. He won his first Nobel physics prize in 1956 for "co-invention of
the transistor," a tiny electronic device capable of performing most of the
functions of a vacuum tube. In 1972, he shared the prize with two others for their
"theory      of   superconductivity,   usually   called   the   BCS-theory,"   an
abbreviation formed by the first letter of each of the winner's surnames.
       While Bardeen developed the transistor at Bell Labs in the late 1940s, it
was in 1953 that AFOSR funded Bardeen and others in the refinement of
integrated circuit technology for Air Force applications Air Force systems in use
today would be far more bulky, heavier and antiquated if not for Bardeen's
discovery.
       Dr. Bardeen's second award was for the "development of a theory to
explain superconductivity," the disappearance of electrical resistance in certain
metals and alloys at temperatures near absolute zero. His work has benefited
the medical field with applications to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and the
electronic field with the development of sensors, transducers, magnets and
particle accelerators.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953




                                                                                5
Willard Libby (University of California, Los Angeles)
CHEMISTRY: 1960


       Willard F. Libby won the 1960 Nobel Chemistry Prize for his "method to
use   carbon-14     for   age      determination   in   archaeology,   genealogy,
geophysics, and other branches of science."
       Libby studied radioactive isotope carbon-14 since its discovery in 1941and
is best known for his radiocarbon dating techniques. He first showed that C-14 is
present in small amounts of C02 in our atmosphere and is absorbed by all life
forms in regular amounts up to a point, after which no more is taken in. Using this
knowledge, Libby postulated, together with the known half-life rate of 5730 years
and the calculated amount of the isotope present in the object, one could
calculate an approximate age for ancient materials.        In 1947, Libby and his
students at the Institute for Nuclear Studies developed the method of C14 dating
using a highly sensitive Geiger counter. Since C14 decays at a measurable rate
upon the death of an organism, Libby was able to determine the age of organic
artifacts by measuring the amount of remaining C14. The tests proved reliable for
objects up to 70,000 years.
       Mr. Libby's dating technique is extremely valuable to earth scientists,
anthropologists and especially archaeologists, virtually eliminating the educated
guesses about the ages of various artifacts based on evidence found at the site.
Now that samples from around the world can be tested, a new chronology has
emerged that knits together archaeological findings from around the world. His
Nobel Prize citation read: "Seldom has such a single discovery in chemistry had
such an impact on the thinking of so many fields of human endeavor. Seldom
has a single discovery generated such wide public interest."
       AFOSR funding for Libby covered a wide range of requirements:
radioactive isotopes, optical transparency, high-pressure chemistry, electron
tunneling, pollution control catalysts, and industrial chemistry in space were but a
few of Libby's research efforts.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1954



                                                                                  6
Robert Hofstadter (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
PHYSICS: 1961


      Robert Hofstadter won the 1961 Physics Nobel for his "pioneering
studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved
discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons."
      Hofstadter used a linear electron accelerator to measure and explore the
constituents of atomic nuclei. At the time, protons, neutrons, and electrons were
all thought to be particles without structure; but Hofstadter discovered that
protons and neutrons have a definite size and form. He was able to determine
the precise size of the proton and neutron and provide the first reasonably
consistent picture of the structure of the atomic nucleus. He also made
substantial contributions to gamma ray spectroscopy, leading to the use of
radioactive tracers to locate tumors and other disorders. During World War II he
worked as a physicist at the National Bureau of Standards, where he helped
develop the proximity fuse, an antiaircraft weapon.
      His work on X-Ray detection in semiconductors and scintillators
contributed to US strategic systems in two ways. Semiconductor and scintillation
detectors are used in flash x-ray machine work that is part of nuclear hardening
of strategic systems including Peacekeeper Missile and Minuteman. They are
also used in circuitry that protects on-board computer systems in such missiles
from disruption by nuclear radiation.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953




                                                                               7
Eugene Wigner (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ)
PHYSICS: 1963


      Noble Laureate in 1963 for Physics, Dr. Eugene Wigner received his prize
for his "contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the
elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of
fundamental symmetry principles."
      Wigner's work helped to disclose the structure of the atomic nucleus and
extended quantum mechanics theory relations to the nature of the proton and
neutron.
      In 1939, Wigner was one of five scientists who informed President
Franklin D. Roosevelt about the possible military use of atomic energy.
      Known as the "Father of Nuclear Engineering," Wigner's work contributed
to the development of the atomic bomb and the design of commercial nuclear
reactors. He designed the first fast neutron breeder reactor.
      Under AFOSR contract, Wigner explored a wide range of topics. He
discussed the usefulness of mathematics as a tool for the formation of the laws
of physics; explored various aspects of the future of nuclear energy; and also
reviewed the standard theory of measurements in quantum mechanics.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958




                                                                             8
Charles Townes (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA)
PHYSICS: 1964


      Beginning in 1953, AFOSR helped to sponsor the research of Dr. Charles
Townes, who went on to win the 1964 prize in Physics for his "fundamental
work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction
of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle."
      Townes is credited for inventing the maser, a device that amplifies
electromagnetic waves.      This technology provided the means for sensitive
reception of communications and for precise navigation.             The maser also
provided the basis for its successor, the laser. AFOSR helped to fund the early
maser and follow-on laser work of Dr. Townes. The result of this revolutionary
research transformed communications, navigation, astronomy, radar, atomic
clocks, surgery and many industrial applications. His discoveries have had wide-
ranging impact not only on the Air Force, but our entire society.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953




                                                                                 9
Robert Mulliken (University of Chicago, Chicago, IL)
CHEMISTRY: 1966


       Winning the Noble prize in Chemistry in 1966, Dr. Robert Mulliken's
research was recognized for "fundamental work concerning chemical bonds
and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method."
       His early work concentrated on isotopes and on diatomic band spectra,
followed by theoretical work to systematize the electronic state of molecules.
Later work by Dr. Mulliken involved extensive research of the structure and
spectra of molecular complexes and also extending and progressing the
structure and spectra of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen and other small molecules.
       A pioneer, Mulliken significantly contributed to the development of
methods now used in computational chemistry. His work led to the advancement
of computer codes with real predictive capabilities that are now used widely
throughout the Department of Defense.
       Mulliken's relationship with AFOSR dates back to 1952 and ensuing years,
when    Mulliken's   research   group    obtained   computationally   practicable
expressions for two-center integrals and went on to simplify the time consuming
effort of programming the formulas for molecular integrals.
       The methods developed by Mulliken enable calculations of many
molecular properties to guide the process of synthesizing new compounds, such
as fuels and propellants, and are also used to develop sensors that can help with
the defense against chemical and biological attacks.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1952




                                                                                 10
Hans Bethe (Cornell University, Ithaca, NY)
PHYSICS: 1967


       Hans Bethe received the Nobel prize in Physics in 1967 for his
"contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries
concerning the energy production in stars."
       Bethe suggested that the production of energy by the sun and other stars
occurs through thermonuclear fusion, a series of nuclear reactions by which
hydrogen is converted into helium.
       Bethe provided great insight into the fundamentals of heavy ions and their
interaction with matter. His work led directly to a capability to accurately predict
energy deposition of heavy ions in any kind of material.
       With the advent of Air Force space satellites and the discovery of the
intense radiation belts surrounding the earth, radiation vulnerability of these
satellites became a serious problem for the Air Force. Dr Bethe's work applies
directly to the interactions of these radiations and his prize-winning work is used
to assess survivability from radiation for every Air Force satellite in orbit today.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953




                                                                                       11
Ragnar Granit (The Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1967


       Ragnar Granit was co-winner of the Nobel prize for Physiology and
Medicine in 1967 for his "discoveries concerning the primary physiological
and chemical visual processes in the eye."
       As a neurophysiologist, Dr. Granit studied nerve impulses to understand
how the eye works with the brain to create vision. Granit worked on a method to
use microscopic electrodes to measure the stimuli of the optic nerves of the
retina, the part of the eye that sends the image gathered by the lens to the brain.
He realized that when light is received by the retina the light has both an
excitatory and inhibitory effect on the optic nerves and that this combination of
effects creates contrast in the image received by the brain. In 1933 he helped to
develop the electroretinogram (ERG), a device used to measure the activity of
the retina. He used it for vision research in general, but especially for color vision
research.
       In the mid-1940s, Granit turned his attention to the study of the length and
tension meters in the muscles known as muscle spindles and tendon organs.
Granit's work in this area did much to explain the physiology of muscle control
and excitation.    Granit co-authored two reports in this field under AFOSR
auspices.
       Dr. Granit's research on the electrical properties of neurons led to
discoveries relating to the electrical signals of brain nerve cells. Those findings
were used to assess cognitive workloads under a variety of conditions that affect
an individual's performance. In addition, engineers are using his methods for
determining functional properties for networks of nerve cells to develop more
effective designs for analog computers and non-linear dynamic control systems.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958




                                                                                   12
George Porter (Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, England)
CHEMISTRY: 1967


      George Porter shared the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for studies of
extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equilibrium by
means of very short pulses of energy."
      As Porter observed, one of the principal activities of a scientist was
extending the very limited senses of man, enabling him to observe phenomena
beyond his normal experience.       Microscopes and microbalances allow the
observation of things which man cannot perceive through his own senses. In the
dimension of time, man's perception is limited to about one-twentieth of a
second, the response time of the eye. However, most fundamental chemical
reactions occur in the range of milliseconds or less, making it necessary to
observe reactions in microtime. It was in the field of making these observations
and interpreting the resulting data that Porter made lasting contributions to
science by the method of flash photolysis. Employing this process, Porter was
able to yield information concerning the mechanism and kinetics of the
photochemical reactions that occurred.
      Porter's early relationship with the U.S. Air Force concerned research on
low-level excitation and energy transfer of gases. His later work with AFOSR
dealt with energy storage and transfer on the molecular level to provide
understanding of processes related to Air Force needs in solar energy
conversion devices, photographic imaging, flash blindness protection, and
radiation damage control in biological systems.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962




                                                                             13
Lars Onsager (Yale University, New haven, CT)
CHEMISTRY: 1968


      Lars Onsager won the 1968 Nobel Chemistry prize "for the discovery of
the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the
thermodynamics of irreversible processes."
      One could have expected that the importance of his "reciprocal relations in
irreversible processes" would have been immediately obvious to the scientific
community. Instead it turned out that Onsager was far ahead of his time. After
publication it attracted almost no attention for more than a third of a century. It
was only after WWII that the concept became more widely known and eventually
played a dominant role in the rapid development of irreversible thermodynamics,
with numerous applications not only in physics and chemistry but also in biology
and technology. The great importance of irreversible thermodynamics becomes
apparent if we realize that almost all common processes are irreversible and
cannot by themselves go backwards. Examples are conduction of heat from a
hot to a cold body and mixing or diffusion. When a cold lump of sugar is
dissolved in a cup of hot tea these processes take place simultaneously.
      Onsager's great contribution was that he could prove that if the equations
governing the flows are written in an appropriate form, then there exist certain
simple connections between the coefficients in these equations. These
connections - the reciprocal relations - make possible a complete theoretical
description of irreversible processes. Earlier attempts to treat such processes by
means of classical thermodynamics gave little success.
      Onsager's research for AFOSR dealt with low-temperature physics.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1966




                                                                                14
Murray Gell-Mann (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
PHYSICS: 1969


       Murray Gell-Mann won the Nobel prize in 1969 for his "contributions
and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and
their interactions."
       As a theoretical physicist Gell-Mann is known for his classification of
subatomic particles and his proposal for the existence of quarks. His research in
particle physics concerned the interactions between protons and neutrons. On
the basis of a proposed property called "strangeness," conserved by particles
involved in strong and electromagnetic interactions, Gell-Mann grouped related
particles into multiplets, or families. In 1963 he and a colleague George Zweig
advanced the "quark" theory. They hypothesized that quarks, particles carrying
fractional electric charges, are the smallest particles of matter. Dr Gell-Mann's
"eightfold way" theory brought order to the chaos created by the discovery of
some 100 particles in the atom's nucleus. He found that all of these particles,
including the neutron and proton, are composed of fundamental building blocks-
quarks-that are permanently confined by forces coming from the exchange of
"gluons." He called the quantum field theory of quarks and gluons, "quantum
chromodynamics," which seems to account for all the nuclear particles and their
strong interactions.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958




                                                                              15
Ulf von Euler (The Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1970


      Armed, in part, with funding from AFOSR, Dr. Ulf von Euler made
important discoveries in the areas of physiology and medicine. He shared the
Nobel Prize with two others in 1970 for "discoveries concerning the humoral
transmitters in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage,
release and inactivation."
      Von Euler is credited for discovering that neural transmitters are stored
and released from nerve cell granules, which controls the body's response to
stress or exertion. His findings stimulated a tremendous amount of research
regarding the affect neurochemical influences have on the brain, heart and other
body systems. The subsequent work produced major advances in the way those
with mental illness, heart disease and other neurogenic conditions are treated.
      Dr. von Euler's work is used by the Air Force to learn more about a
person's neural control as they go about their normal daily routine as well as
during periods of sleep. This research is used to help determine the effectiveness
of an individual during sustained operations.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1960




                                                                                  16
John Bardeen (University of Illinois, Urbana, IL)
John R. Schrieffer (University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA)
PHYSICS: 1972


       Dr. John Bardeen was the first scientist to win two Nobel prizes in the
same category -- Physics. He won his first prize in 1956 for "co-invention of the
transistor," a tiny electronic device capable of performing most of the functions
of a vacuum tube. In 1972, he shared the prize with John R. Schrieffer and Leon
N. Cooper for their jointly developed "theory of superconductivity, usually
called the BCS-theory," an abbreviation formed by the first letter of each of the
winner's surnames.
       While Bardeen developed the transistor at Bell Labs in the late 1940s, it
was in 1953 that AFOSR funded Bardeen and others in the refinement of
integrated circuit technology for Air Force applications. Air Force systems in use
today would be far more bulky, heavier and antiquated if not for Bardeen's
discovery.
       Dr. Bardeen's second award was for the "development of a theory to
explain superconductivity," the disappearance of electrical resistance in certain
metals and alloys at temperatures near absolute zero. Bardeen, Cooper and
Schrieffer’s groundbreaking work has been the basis for follow on successes
regarding quantum mechanical tunnel phenomena to study superconductors, the
discovery of magnetic flux quantization and Josephson junction effects.      Dr’s
Bardeen and Schrieffer first received AFOSR funding in the 1950s, resulting in
seminal research reports on superconductivity in the following years. Their BCS
theory has benefited a broad range of basic scientific research with applications
to national defense, commercial, industrial production processes, as well as the
medical field with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and most significantly in
the electronic arena with the development of sensors, transducers, magnets and
particle accelerators.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953 (Bardeen); 1959 (Schrieffer)




                                                                               17
Nikolass Tinbergen (University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1973


       Dr. Nikolaas Tinbergen shared the Nobel prize for Physiology & Medicine
with two others in 1973 for their "discoveries concerning organization and
elicitation of individual and social behavior pattems." It was the first time the
Nobel Committee recognized research in sociobiology or ethology.
      As a zoologist, Dr Tinbergen's experimental work demonstrated how
complex patterns of animal behavior depended on both slowly changing inherited
behavioral patterns and more rapid-paced changes due to learning. His findings
stimulated considerable scientific work in such diverse fields as animal
communication and human language learning, mate selection, evolutionary
theory and, most important to the Air Force, theories of cooperative behavior.
These theories help explain and predict ways that large numbers of simple
systems can produce very complex goal-directed behaviors with minimal
communication between them.
      The path of Tinbergen's work passed through cybernetics in the 1960s,
learning automata in the 1970s, neural networks and "animats" in the 1980s, to
modern control theory. The rules that determine properties of cooperating
microsatellites, micro-air vehicles, and ground-based "nano-bots" may be found
to share much in common with the rules that determine goal-seeking behaviors
found in ant colonies.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1961




                                                                              18
Brian Josephson (Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kngdom)
PHYSICS: 1973


       Nobel Laureate in Physics, Dr. Brian Josephson, won the 1973 prize for
his "theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a
tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena that are generally known as
the Josephson effects."
       He invented a superconductivity device that bears his name - the
Josephson Junction - which is used in digital electronic applications. This device
provides the basis for the world's most sensitive magnetometers and the fastest,
lowest power electronic switching elements.
       Josephson was responsible for developing the theory now known
universally as the Josephson effects in superconductors, which is used to make
the world's fastest, high-resolution electronic circuitry, currently used in Air Force
electronic countermeasures systems, and many other applications.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1968




                                                                                   19
Paul Flory (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 1974


      Dr. Paul John Flory, won the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1974 for his
"fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the
physical chemistry of the macromolecules."
      Dr. Flory's first research focused mostly on photochemistry and
spectroscopy, which enables scientists to determine the composition of
molecules by analyzing the light they emit when heated. Later, Flory began
researching the physical chemistry of polymers. He studied their properties in
solution and in bulk and his research revealed the connections between the
chemical structures of the individual polymer molecules and their physical
properties. Considered by many to be the "founder of polymer science," Flory's
work with nylon and synthetic rubber proved to be of great commercial
importance.
      Dr. Flory developed the framework to understand the physics and
viscoelasticity behavior of polymers. This framework led to the development of
advanced resins used in organic-matrix, carbon-fiber reinforced composites
currently used in the wings and fuselages of many Air Force aircraft, including
the F-16, B-2, F-22 and Joint Strike Fighter (JSF).
AFOSR Funding Began: 1961




                                                                            20
William Lipscomb (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
CHEMISTRY: 1976


       William N. Lipscomb put his AFOSR funding to optimal use when he
earned the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1976 for his "studies on the structure
of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding."
       Boranes are compounds of boron and hydrogen. By developing x-ray
techniques that later proved useful in many chemical applications, Lipscomb and
his associates were able to map the molecular structures of numerous boranes
and their derivatives. The stability of boranes could not be explained by
traditional concepts of electron bonding -- in which each pair of atoms is linked by
a pair of electrons -- because boranes lacked sufficient electrons. Lipscomb
showed how three atoms could share a pair of electrons. In 1961, the work of
Dr. Lipscomb was featured in AFOSR Chemistry Program Review to illustrate
some of his innovative crystallographic work.
       Since the early 1960s his research also focused on the relationship
between three-dimensional structures of enzymes and how they catalyze
reactions. He is noted for his famous quotation: "The creative process, first of all,
requires a good nine hours of sleep a night. Second, it must not be pushed by
the need to produce practical applications. "
AFOSR Funding Began: 1959




                                                                                  21
Philip Anderson (Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ)
John Van Vleck (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
PHYSICS: 1977


        Philip W. Anderson, John H. Van Vleck, and Nevill Mott, won the Nobel
Prize in 1977 for their contribution to the "fundamental theoretical
investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered
systems."
        Anderson is one of the leading theorists on superconductivity and won his
part of the prize for developments in advanced electronic circuitry. He showed
conditions under which an electron in a disordered or imperfect system can either
move through the system as a whole or stay in a specific position -- becoming a
localized electron. This development provided a better understanding of electrical
conduction in magnetic materials. His research in solid-state physics made
possible the development of inexpensive electronic switching and memory
devices in computers. Anderson also has done work on pulsar glitches with
David Pines. He is credited with developing concept of the "Higgs" boson in
1962.
        Dr. Van Vleck was recognized for his contributions to the understanding of
the behavior of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solid materials. Early during
the 1930s, Van Vleck developed the first fully articulated quantum mechanical
theory of magnetism. Later he was a chief architect of the ligand field theory of
molecular bonding. The research performed in solid-state physics by these Nobel
laureates made possible the development of inexpensive electronic switching
and memory devices in computers, which are widely used in industry and in
military systems.    Van Vleck also contributed to a variety of studies, most
notably, on the spectra of free molecules and paramagnetic relaxation.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1964 (Van Fleck); 1968 (Anderson)




                                                                                22
Ilya Prigogine (Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Brussells, Belgium; and
               University of Texas, Austin, TX)
CHEMISTRY: 1977


        Dr. Ilya Prigogine won the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1977 for his
"contributions to non- equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory
of dissipative structures."
       Prigogine focused most of his work on better understanding the role of
time in biology and in the physical sciences. He has contributed significantly to
the understanding of irreversible processes, particularly in systems far from
equilibrium. He initiated the application of thermodynamics to irreversible
processes in both living and inanimate systems. Prigogine's contributions have
come largely in irreversibility, or, as he calls it, "the arrow of time."
       His concept of dissipative structures describes the workings of open
systems -- systems in which there is an exchange of matter and energy with the
outside environment.        His theory has been widely adopted by the U.S.
Department of Transportation to predict traffic-flow patterns. In biology, the
theory has proved useful in understanding a number of phenomena, including the
glycolytic, or sugar, cycle, a metabolic process by which living cells extract
energy from food.
       As a leader in the field of nonlinear statistical mechanics, his work
contributed to the ability to analyze processes in complex systems. The
contribution of his work to DoD is in understanding the atmospheric processes
that are governed by complex interrelated phenomena.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1953




                                                                              23
Herbert A. Simon (Carnegie Mellon University)
ECONOMICS: 1978


      The 1978 Alfred Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was
awarded to Herbert A. Simon, “for his pioneering research into the decision-
making process within economic organizations.”


      Herbert Simon was very much a renaissance man as his undergraduate
and graduate work deviated sharply from classical economic theory, and even
included making a “…serious study of graduate-level physics in order to
strengthen and practice….mathematical skills and to gain an intimate knowledge
of what a ‘hard’ science was like, particularly on the theoretical side.” Simon
made an early name for himself in economics with the publication of his book
Administrative Behavior in 1947, which looked at companies as adaptive systems
comprised of various components, not in search of maximum profits, but
searching to find solutions to problems. His critical work had obvious application
to large bureaucratic/government organizations dealing with expansive planning,
budgeting and control issues.
      AFOSR funded numerous studies by Simon beginning in 1964 dealing
with game theory, and moving on to efficiencies in computer time-sharing in
1966. AFOSR, along with the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA),
supported Simon (and co-author Allen Newell) in a long term study that ultimately
became a classic book in the field of information processing titled Human
Problem Solving (1972).     In many ways the book was the genesis for the
application of computers—both as a tool and a comparative model—to study how
humans think.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962




                                                                               24
Sheldon Glashow (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
Steven Weinberg (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
Abdus Salam (International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, Italy,
           and Imperial College of Science and Technology, London,
           United Kingdom)
PHYSICS: 1979

       AFOSR funded physicists Sheldon L. Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven
Weinberg won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1979 for their "contributions to the
theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between
elementary particles, including inter alia the prediction of the weak neutral
current ."
       Four forces were believed to drive the laws of physics: gravity,
electromagnetism, the strong force (which holds an atom's nucleus together),
and the weak force (which breaks an atom apart, as in radioactivity).
Independent works by Drs. Glashow, Salam and Weinberg resulted in the
unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces.
       Glashow's research involved many aspects of particle theory, cosmology,
and classical mechanics. He received the award for his pioneering work on the
electroweak theory. This theory, completed in the 1970s, discusses the
relationship   between   two   of   the   four   fundamental   forces   of   nature,
electromagnetic force and weak force. Through these forces, subatomic particles
interact with each other. The electromagnetic force holds molecules together and
keeps electrons in orbit around an atomic nucleus. The weak force causes
radioactive decay in the nucleus. Glashow also predicted the existence of the
charm quark, one of the quarks that make up elementary particles.
       Dr. Salam is also famous for his contributions to the electroweak theory.
Additional electroweak theory research was conducted by Steven Weinberg,
who, around 1967, theorized that the electromagnetic and the weak forces are
the same at extremely high energy levels. The validity of the theory was
ascertained in the following years through experiments carried out at the
superprotosynchrotron facility at CERN in Geneva, which led to the discovery of
the W and Z particles. Salam's electroweak theory is still the core of the 'standard


                                                                                 25
model' of high-energy physics. Their work represented one giant step closer to
physicists' long-dreamed of goal of finding a single elegant equation to explain all
the matter and forces in nature.
      The work of these three nuclear physicists on isotopic spin provides some
of the basic understanding that AFOSR is building upon in studies of spin
isomers, which have significant ability to store large amounts of energy. This
AFOSR funded work is regarded as revolutionary. If developments are
successful, weapons systems of unprecedented capability will emerge along with
numerous applications in space and industry.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958 (Glashow); 1958 (Weinberg); 1962 (Salam)




                                                                                 26
Walter Gilbert (Harvard University, Boston, MA)
CHEMISTRY: 1980


       AFOSR-funded Walter Gilbert was a co-recipient of the 1980 Chemistry
award “for contributions concerning the determination of base sequences
in nucleic acids.”


       Although Gilbert’s doctorate and initial research was in theoretical physics,
it was in the summer of 1960 that he joined a colleague in an experiment to
identify messenger RNA, which is a carrier of information from the genome to the
protein producing ribosomes. After this successful endeavor, Gilbert eventually
shifted his work full time to experimental molecular biology and ultimately
reached the point where his contributions to the field made it possible to map out
the structure and function of a cell’s deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
       The chemistry of a living cell is governed by DNA within its chromosomes,
and DNA carries out its task by determining which enzymes a cell manufactures.
The enzymes impart to the cell its characteristic chemical pattern by their ability
to facilitate various chemical reactions in a specific manner. Gilbert (who shared
the award with Paul Berg and Frederick Sanger) made significant breakthroughs
regarding the way in which DNA, as carrier of genetic traits, governs the
chemical machinery of the cell. Gilbert and Sanger independently developed
different methods to determine the exact sequence of nucleotide building blocks
in DNA.    In particular, Gilbert investigated the structure of those parts of a
bacterial chromosome which control the reading of the genetic message.
       The investigations of Berg, Gilbert and Sanger have given us detailed
insight into the chemical basis of the genetic machinery in living organisms.
Their work will play a decisive role in efforts to understand the nature of cancer,
as in this disease there is a malfunction in the control, by the genetic material, of
the growth and division of cells.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1959




                                                                                  27
Nicolaas Bloembergen (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
Arthur Schawlow (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
Kai Siegbahn (Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden)
PHYSICS: 1981


      AFOSR-funded Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Schawlow were co-
recipients of the 1981 Physics Nobel for their "contribution to the development
of laser spectroscopy." AFOSR also funded Kai M. Siegbahn whose Nobel
prize was awarded "for his contribution to the development of high-
resolution electron spectroscopy."
      Bloembergen's contributions to non-linear optics and spectroscopy
advanced both nonlinear theory and development of instrumentation. The
resulting impact during the last 20 years has been significant across science and
engineering disciplines. For example, his findings for "four wave mixing" are
being extended to develop advanced technology for non-contact NDE (non-
destructive evaluation) of airframes which greatly benefits the Air Force and DoD.
Recently a laser ultrasonic system was developed that is capable of detecting
damage in aging airframe structures and engine components without having
physical contact with them.
      In the 1950s, Arthur Schawlow collaborated with Nobel Laureate Charles
Townes on maser and laser theory and design. They sought ways to extend the
maser principle to amplify electromagnetic waves into shorter wavelengths of
infrared and visible light. Schawlow's solution was to build a cavity consisting of
a synthetic ruby that would serve as a resonator for light waves. His work was
important toward development of techniques for "pumping" energy into materials
suc as ruby and carbon dioxide. When such materials have been pumped, they
can be induced to "lase," to emit that extra energy as a beam of coherent light.
      The award to Kal Siegbahn was for his work in electron spectroscopy, or
the analysis of electrons expelled from atomic systems.         Before his work,
electron spectroscopy was limited.       When a substance was excited with
radiation, the energy of the electrons emitted could not be analyzed in their



                                                                                   28
entirety. In 1954, Siegbahn developed a type of spectrometer that provided a
more accurate analysis of the electron's energy and electromagnetic spectrum.
This work contributed to the development of high-tech polymer materials used in
a wide variety of applications to include the aerospace industry.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1956 (Siegbahn); 1975 (Bloembergen); 1981
(Schawlow)




                                                                            29
Kenichi Fukui (Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan)
Roald Hoffman (Cornell University)
CHEMISTRY: 1981


       Dr. Kenichi Fukui and Dr. Roald Hoffman were jointly awarded the Nobel
Prize for Chemistry in 1981 "for their theories, developed independently,
concerning the course of chemical reactions."
       Dr. Fukui did experimental work in organic chemistry (the chemistry of
compounds containing carbon), including fossil fuels -- oil, gas, and coal. In
1952, he discovered that one could understand chemical reactions in terms of
the density of electron clouds around reacting atoms. It was in the mid-1960s
that Dr. Hoffman worked with 1965 Chemistry Nobel winner R. B. Woodward at
Harvard, demonstrating outstanding achievements in experimentally building up
complex organic molecules. Much earlier, in the mid-1950s, Fukui developed the
theory that during chemical reactions molecules share loosely bonded electrons,
which occupy so-called frontier orbitals. This was the key for Fukui and Hoffman,
who, working independently, found that “the symmetry properties of frontier
orbitals could explain certain reaction courses that had previously been difficult to
understand.”     Their frontier orbital theory became a powerful tool for
understanding the reactivity of molecules.           This theory advanced the
understanding of the mechanism of chemical reactions, especially in the
production of organic compounds; understanding of the path of chemical
reactions and on the geometric shapes of reacting molecules. This led to other
discoveries and, in particular, the development of new pharmaceuticals.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 (Fukui); 1980 (Hoffman)




                                                                                  30
David Hubel (Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA)
Thorsten Wiesel (Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1981


       AFOSR-funded scientists Drs. David H. Hubel and Thorsten N. Wiesel
won a Nobel prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1981 for their "discoveries
concerning information processing in the visual system."
       In 1958 Hubel and Wiesel decided to study the mechanisms of the brain's
visual system. In experiments with cats and monkeys, they used tiny conductors
inserted into the brain to record how various visual stimuli activate different cells
at different locations within the visual cortex. They also injected radioactively
labeled amino acids into the retina under specific conditions of stimulation. The
researchers were then able to trace the exact path of the amino acids, thereby
uncovering a route of transmission for nerve impulses under specific conditions.
Some years later, Wiesel and Hubel demonstrated that the brain's ability to see is
formed through use of the eyes in the first few weeks after birth. This prompted
doctors to immediately correct congenital cataracts or crossed eyes.
       Their primary discoveries in vision suggested both the elementary units of
visual analysis and a logic by which the brain could conjoin these units to
represent visual scenes. Computer algorithms that incorporate similar analysis
and logic are now a mainstay of automatic systems for image recognition and
speech recognition. Many in today's military benefit from their discovery of
motion-sensitive cortical cells, which led to the study of how humans detect and
track moving targets.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1959




                                                                                  31
Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (University of Chicago, Chicago, IL)
William Fowler (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
PHYSICS: 1983


       Subramanyan Chandrasekhar and William A. Fowler, both funded by
AFOSR, were co-recipients of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1981.
Chandrasekhar won for his "theoretical studies of the physical processes
important to the structure and evolution of the stars." Fowler was honored
for his "theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of
importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe."
       Chandrasekhar developed many theories that changed the way people
look at the universe. His initial research involved stellar evolution and the theory
of white dwarfs. At the time, astronomers were beginning to notice that stars vary
in size and temperature, which indicated what phase a star was in its life. The
common belief stated that stars in their final stages would become white dwarfs
because they would eventually cool. Chandrasekhar deduced that not all stars
could become white dwarfs. He discovered that only stars with a mass up to 1.44
times that of the sun could become a white dwarf. In a massive star, equilibrium
between gas pressures and gravity cannot occur. Thus, the star would not be
able to collapse on itself and become a white dwarf. This boundary for stars is
known as the Chandrasekhar limit.
       His work on astrophysics and stellar dynamics was seminal in the
development of models of nucleosynthesis and thermonuclear reactions. Such
knowledge was critical in the development of the U.S. thermonuclear arsenal. In
addition, his work led to models for the solar interior, which permitted
development of a capability to perform space weather forecasting.
       Fowler studied how chemical elements are formed in nuclear reactions,
especially in the formation of stars. He also studied the radio emissions of
quasars and the functioning of subatomic particles such as neutrinos. For
decades he investigated the nuclear reactions believed to occur in stellar
interiors.



                                                                                 32
Fowler was primarily concerned with studies of fusion reactions -- how the
nuclei of lighter chemical elements fuse to create the heavier ones in a process
known as nucleosynthesis. In 1957, in the seminal paper "Synthesis of the
Elements in the Stars," Fowler showed that all of the elements from carbon to
uranium could be produced by nuclear processes in stars, starting only with the
hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang. This work put Fowler and his
collaborators at the forefront of some of the most central issues in modern
physics and cosmology: the formation of the chemical elements inside stars; the
Big Bang origin of the universe; and the current "dark matter" debate over what
makes up most of the universe.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1960 (Chandrasekhar); 1960 (Fowler)




                                                                              33
Dudley Herschbach (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
John Polanyi (University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada)
Yuan T. Lee (University of Chicago)


CHEMISTRY: 1986
       AFOSR-funded Dudley R. Herschbach, John C. Polanyi, and Yuan T. Lee
were co-recipients of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1981 for their
"contributions    concerning      the   dynamics    of   chemical    elementary
processes.”
       Their work opened a new area of research in chemistry -- reaction
dynamics -- that has provided a much more detailed understanding of how
chemical reactions take place.
       Dr. Herschbach shared the prize for helping to apply the technology and
theory of physics to chemistry.      He invented the "crossed molecular beam
technique," which allows for the detailed analysis of chemical reactions through
the use of supersonic molecular beams. Polanyi was cited for developing "the
method of infrared chemiluminescence, in which the extremely weak infrared
emission from a newly formed molecule is measured and analyzed. He used this
method to elucidate the detailed energy disposal during chemical reactions.
Because he understood the source of this light emission he was able to propose
vibrational and chemical lasers, the most powerful sources of infrared radiation
ever developed.      Yuan T. Lee, who initially worked in cooperation with
Herschbach, developed the method of crossed molecular beams towards its use
for general reactions, most notably, using this method for the study of important
reactions for relatively large molecules.
       Combined, the work of this trio provided the fundamental understanding
about the details of how reactions occur at the atomic and molecular levels. Their
pioneering work was pivotal in the development of the first chemical lasers that
would form the basis for numerous DoD laser-based research efforts. Their work
on reaction dynamics and molecular structure also contributed to the
development and validation of theoretical models of quantum chemistry. These



                                                                               34
models are now routinely used in the DoD to guide the synthesis of new
compounds, such as energetic materials, and to predict the energy release in
reactions, which are applied for use in modeling rocket plumes and signatures.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1979 (Herschbach); 1981 (Polanyi); 1971 (Lee)




                                                                                 35
Donald Cram (University of California, Los Angeles, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 1987)


       Donald J. Cram was co-recipient of the 1987 Nobel Prize for Chemistry
for "development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions
of high selectivity."
      Cram is best known for his role in developing what is now known as host-
guest chemistry. The work involves creating synthetic host molecules that mimic
some of the actions enzymes perform in cells. Over a 30-year period, Cram and
his colleagues designed and prepared more than 1,000 hosts, each with its own
chemical and physical properties that would attract and bind specific guest
molecules. He succeeded in synthesizing molecules that are able to behave like
the molecules of living things, in that they "recognize" and attach themselves to
specific atoms.
      The molecules Cram produced have many practical applications. They are
used to control chemical reactions. They also are used in medicines, delivering
active ingredients in controlled dosages long after the medicine has been taken.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962




                                                                               36
Melvin Schwartz: (Stanford University, Stanford, CA, and
                     Digital Pathways International, Inc., Mountain View, CA)
PHYSICS: 1988


        Melvin Schwartz, Leon Lederman, and Jack Steinberger, shared the 1988
Nobel Prize in Physics, “for the neutrino beam method and the
demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the
discovery of the muon neutrino.”
        The work carried out in concert by Schwartz, Lederman, and Steinberger
during the 1960s came out of discussions at Columbia University regarding a
need to find a feasible method of studying the effect of weak forces at high
energy levels. It was Melvin Schwartz who suggested employing a beam of
neutrinos for this purpose and work commenced to design a complimentary
detector for measuring neutrino reactions. The team was successful in building a
sophisticated detector which excluded unwanted particles from the neutrino
beam.     This first successful neutrino beam experiment has been used
extensively for investigating the weak force and the quark structure of matter, as
well as the neutrino itself.
        In the 1970s Dr. Schwartz went on to investigate state of the art
approaches to the secure management of data communications. It was in this
area that AFOSR issued several contracts to Dr. Schwartz to explore ways to
ensure    the   integrity,     viability,   and   increased   capacity   of   Air   Force
telecommunications systems.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1970




                                                                                       37
Elias J. Corey (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
CHEMISTRY: 1990


       Elias Corey received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, “for his
development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis.”
Thought by many to be one of the greatest living chemists, Cory is most famous
for his seminal and overarching discoveries and development of theory in the
field of organic synthesis—the construction of organic molecules via chemical
processes. Corey’s Nobel Prize recognized his formal approach to synthesis
design, based on retrosynthetic analysis, whereby the research is planned
backwards from the product, using standardized rules and procedures. Corey’s
retrosynthetic analysis begins with the planned structure of the hoped for
molecule and an ensuing analysis of which bonds must be broken in turn—
simplifying the structure in a formalized retrograde approach.     Corey has
developed several new synthetic reagents as well as numerous reactions which
have become commonplace in the field.
       Corey’s frontier-breaking work has been fundamental to the direct or
inferential advancement and facilitation of numerous Air Force requirements in
flight medicine.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1968




                                                                           38
Jerome Friedman (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA)
Henry Kendall (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA)
PHYSICS: 1990

      Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall, and Richard Taylor (Stanford
University), received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics, for their pioneering
investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons
and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the
development of the quark model in particle physics.” This award recognized
a significant breakthrough in our understanding of the basic structure of matter.
        In 1963, Friedman and Kendall joined forces with Taylor and others to
conduct experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. This MIT/SLAC
collaboration resulted in a series of measurements of inelastic electron scattering
from the proton and the neutron which provided the first direct evidence of the
internal quark sub-structure of the nucleon. The accelerator experiments proved
that quarks formed the fundamental building blocks of protons and neutrons, and
that there is a glue which binds the quarks together—gluons. These discoveries
begot a new era in the history of physics.
      Among other contributions, AFOSR funding for Friedman and Kendall
resulted in enhanced nuclear instrumentation and particle accelerator advances
at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1961 (Friedman); 1961 (Kendall)




                                                                                    39
Rudolph A. Marcus (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 1992

       Rudolph Marcus was the recipient of the 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
"for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in
chemical systems."
       Marcus is best known for his exceptional theoretical work on electron
transfer and the fact that his efforts in this area have resulted in basic chemical
theory of great practical consequence in the field. The Marcus Theory describes
and makes predictions concerning photochemical production of fuel,
chemiluminescence (cold light), the conductivity of electrically conducting
polymers, corrosion, and many other chemical reactions. It was in the early
1960s that AFOSR funded Dr. Marcus when he was engaged in the research
and publication of a series of papers on electron transfer reactions. His work led
directly to the solution of the problem of greatly varying reaction rates.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1962




                                                                                      40
Mario Molina (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA)
CHEMISTRY: 1995

       Mario Molina, Paul Crutzen and Sherwood Rowland won the 1995
Chemistry prize for their "work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly
concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone." It was the first time
a Nobel had been awarded to a Mexican American, and also the first time the
Nobel Committee had recognized leaders in environmental science. These three
chemists have all made pioneering contributions to explaining how ozone is
formed and decomposes through chemical processes in the atmosphere.
       Molina presenting the first definitive demonstration that human actions can
harm the environment on a global scale. In 1974, Molina hypothesized that
chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, then a widely used ingredient of aerosol cans, air
conditioners, and refrigerators, were depleting the ozone layer. Stratospheric
ozone protects the planet from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Without it, plant
and animal life as we know it could not exist on the planet, at least on land.
       Molina's initial work was greeted with skepticism, but by 1979 he had
proven his theory, and alarmed by news of an "Achilles heel" in the atmosphere,
the public demanded action. Manufacturers looked for alternatives to CFCs. This
flurry of action, including a ban on CFCs as propellants in spray cans in the US,
took place despite the fact that no one had observed any loss of stratospheric
ozone. The discovery of the hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica in 1980
increased the sense of urgency that CFCs should be widely banned.
       In 1987, an international accord known as the Montreal Protocol was
signed to phase out the use of CFCs in developed and developing countries.
Molina went on to prove the connection between CFCs and the Antarctic ozone
hole by proposing a new series of chemical reactions that was confirmed in 1991.
       Dr. Molina was funded by AFOSR as part of an effort to assess the impact
of Air Force space launch operations on the environment. Molina investigated
the potential catalytic activity of aluminum oxide particulates exhausted from solid
rocket motors on atmospheric processes, including ozone depletion.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1995


                                                                                 41
Richard E. Smalley (Rice University)
CHEMISTRY: 1996


      Richard Smalley shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Robert F.
Curl, Jr. (Rice University) and Sir Harold W. Kroto (University of Sussex,
Brighton, U.K.) “…for their discovery of fullerenes.”
      Basically, what Smalley, Curl, and Kroto discovered in 1985 was that the
element carbon could be made into new forms that can create enclosed shell
designs, particularly in the shape of a ball—a European soccer (foot)ball. To be
precise, this unique form was named the “buckminsterfullerene” after the
American architect R. Buckminster Fuller and his geodetic dome design. These
clusters that contained 60 carbon atoms resulted in a very stable molecular
structure of great symmetry.       Other carbon clusters were produced that
contained additional carbon atoms also resulting in stable structures.
       These new fullerene carbon clusters not only produced unique properties,
but opened up an entirely new branch of chemistry related to their production,
manipulation, and application in the fields of astrochemistry, superconductivity
and materials development.       For example, three dimensional polymers and
nanotubes—employed on a fullerene template—may greatly impact materials
development.
      AFOSR first provided funding to Dr. Smalley in 1972 when he researched
laser spectroscopy of supersonic molecular beams and its application to the
nitrogen dioxide spectrum. Additional laser spectroscopy programs continued
throughout the next decade and recent AFOSR support is dedicated to single
wall nanotube growth research.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1972




                                                                             42
Steven Chu (Stanford University, Stanford, CA)
PHYSICS: 1997


       Dr. Steven Chu shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1997 with two others
for "development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light."
       Dr. Chu's method of cooling and trapping atoms with laser lights provides
the foundation for atom interferometers, atom lasers and more precise frequency
standards, such as the basis for atomic clocks. These clocks, used in space and
earth navigation to pinpoint a position, are expected to result in a 1000-fold
increase in accuracy.
       Physics is not the only area the improved time standard has generated a
positive ripple effect. Other branches of science have been influenced by Dr.
Chu's discoveries. They include: a new way of understanding polymer behavior
(coatings, friction, injection molding); direct studies of biological interactions
(DNA behavior, bacterial interactions); insight into novel forms of matter (Bose-
Einstein condensation, atom interferometer); and a legacy of graduate students
to enrich the U.S. talent pool.
       The Air Force benefit is significant thanks to Dr. Chu's work. Navigation
and control systems, smaller electronic circuits with greater density, and covert
and encrypted communications will witness marked improvements.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1988




                                                                               43
Daniel Tsui (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ)
PHYSICS: 1998


       Dr. Daniel Tsui shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1998 for the
"discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged
excitations."
       Dr. Tsui developed his award-winning idea during a long and productive
career with Bell Labs. He then joined Princeton University where he used
AFOSR sponsorship to forward extensions of that work. Tsui's efforts led to
miniaturized, high-performance millimeter wave components that are used
extensively in surveillance and communications systems.
       Tsui made refined studies of the quantum Hall effect using inversion
layers in materials of ultra-high purity. Plateaus appeared in the Hall effect not
only for magnetic fields corresponding to the filling of orbits with one, two, three,
etc, electron charges, but also for fields corresponding to fractional charges. This
could be understood only in terms of a new kind of quantum fluid, where the
motion of independent electrons of charge e is replaced by excitations in a multi-
particle system which behave (in a strong magnetic field) as if charges of
       The smaller, faster components expected to be developed from Dr. Tsui's
breakthrough will play a key role in helping the Air Force to achieve its goal of
reducing the weight and volume of electronic circuits by 75 to 80 percent early
this century.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1985




                                                                                  44
Ahmed Zewail (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 1999)


       Dr. Ahmed Zewail took home the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1999 for
his "studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using
femtosecond spectrocopy."
      Dr. Zewail's pioneering research showed that it is possible, with rapid laser
technique, to see how atoms in a molecule move during a chemical reaction. His
insights have helped scientists understand how certain molecules are
synthesized, how energy is released in reactions and how the outcome of
chemical reactions might be controlled.
      Using these ultrafast lasers, Zewail was able to image chemical reactions
as bonds form and break in real time, or at a scale of femtoseconds - a millionth
of a billionth of a second. Dubbed "femtochemistry," it has allowed scientists to
understand how and why certain chemical reactions take place but not others.
Zewail's work also helped scientists explain why the speed and yield of reactions
depend on temperatures. As a result, scientists the world over are studying
processes with femtosecond spectrocopy in gases, in solids, in fluids, on
surfaces and in polymers.
      The Air Force has benefited from Zewail's prize-winning work, focusing
their applications on better understanding and controlling the release of energy in
chemical reactions in systems, such as novel rocket propellants and the
interactions of aerospace vehicles with their environments.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1986




                                                                                45
Alan Heeger (University of California, Santa Barbara, CA)
Alan G. MacDiarmid (University of Pennsylvania)
CHEMISTRY: 2000


       Dr. Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki Shirakawa
(of the University of Tsukuba, Japan) jointly won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in
2000 for "the discovery and development of conductive polymers."

       Heeger’s research in the 1970s focused on conductive polymers. He and
two associates found that a thin film of polyacetylene, when oxidized with iodine
vapor, exhibited an electrical conductivity increase of a billion times; turning an
insulator to a conductor. MacDiarmid’s 1970s research was also along the same
line of effort.      A 1972 AFOSR-sponsored research report by MacDiarmid
concerned an even-electron paramagnetic silicon species which confirmed
electron transfer.

       These discoveries led to a new field of carbon-based electronics that have
wide application and benefit for the Air Force. This pioneering work pushed the
field of polymer research from primarily addressing structural applications to
other potential applications typically addressed by semiconducting materials.
Scientists and engineers no longer speculate about "plastic airplanes" and
"plastic engines." Today, "plastic electronics" and "plastic lasers" are targets of
research supported by all the services and agencies within the Department of
Defense.
       This Nobel winning research will also lead to an Air Force and commercial
reality in the near future, as plastic display panels -- like those found in a variety
of hand-held devices -- are developed.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1988 (Heeger); 1970 (MacDiarmid)




                                                                                   46
Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments, Dallas, TX)
PHYSICS: 2000


       Jack Kilby, an AFOSR-funded scientist, received half of the 2000 Nobel
Prize for Physics for his part "in the invention of the integrated circuit,"-- the
other half was shared with AFOSR-funded Dr. Herbert Kroemer and another
physicist.
       There       are   few   living     men   whose    insights    and    professional
accomplishments have changed the world. Jack Kilby is one of these men. His
invention of the monolithic integrated circuit - the microchip – almost 50 years
ago at Texas Instruments (TI), laid the conceptual and technical foundation for
the entire field of modern microelectronics. It was this breakthrough that made
possible     the    sophisticated       high-speed   computers      and    large-capacity
semiconductor memories of today's information age.
       Kilby also was one of the first people to suggest that semiconductors
could be developed for use in Air Force weapon systems. As a result, the first
Minuteman II computer was successfully flight tested in May 1964. Early ballistic
missile tests with Kilby's integrated circuits largely assured the acceptance of
semiconductor technology for other military and commercial uses.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1958




                                                                                      47
Herbert Kroemer (University of California, Santa Barbara, CA)
PHYSICS: 2000


       Dr. Herbert Kroemer, an AFOSR-funded physicist, shared half of his 2000
Nobel Prize for Physics with another physicist - the other half going to AFOSR-
funded scientist Professor Jack Kilby - for "developing semiconductor
heterostructures used in high-speed and opto-electronics."
       Kroemer was the first to propose the use of thin layers of semiconducting
materials, known as heterostructures -- novel composites of two or more
materials -- to develop the heterostructure transistor.        Kroemer analyzed
theoretically the mobility of electrons and holes in heterostructure junctions. His
propositions led to the build up of transistors, later called HEMTs (high electron
mobility transistors), which are very important in today's high-speed electronics.
The new transistor, relying on these composites, made significant improvements
over conventional transistors in current amplification and high-frequency
applications.
       Kroemer and a colleague, working independently, went on to create the
heterostructure laser, an innovation crucial to the development of fiber optic
communications.
       Dr. Kroemer's revolutionary ideas marked the beginning of the era of
modern optoelectronic devices that have affected the way the Air Force and the
populace at-large interact, such as through radio link satellites, the Internet,
mobile phones, CD players.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1995




                                                                                48
Paul Greengard (Rockefeller University, New York, NY)
Eric R. Kandel (National Center for Scientific Research, Paris (EOARD))
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 2000


      Dr. Paul Greengard and Eric R. Kandel shared the 2000 Nobel Prize for
medicine with one other neuroscientist, Arvid Carlsson, for their discoveries
regarding "signal transduction in the nervous system."
      Greengard's research, begun more than 30 years ago, demonstrated the
means by which chemicals known as neurotransmitters carry signals between
nerve cells. These findings have resulted in the understanding of how the brain
processes function and in the development of new drugs. He has also
demonstrated that many effects -- both therapeutic and toxic -- of several classes
of common antipsychotic, hallucinogenic and antidepressant drugs can be
explained in terms of distinct neurochemical actions which affect the transmission
of nerve signals in the brain. Under AFOSR sponsorship, Greengard
experimented with large nerve cells to understand the molecular activity of
synapse transmission.
      Eric Kandel’s effort’s were supported early on by AFOSR through their
foreign detachment, the European Office of Aerospace Research and
Development.    His 1964 paper, the Mechanism of Prolonged Heterosynaptic
Facilitation, was early foundational research for follow on efforts in signal
transduction.
      Greengard, Kandel and Carlsson developed a general model which
provides a rational explanation, at the molecular and cellular levels, of the
mechanism by which stimuli -- both electrical and chemical -- produce
physiological responses in individual nerve cells. This knowledge has led to a
better understanding of the brain's function in perception, cognition and action. In
turn, this provides a solid scientific basis for designing equipment and jobs to
match human capabilities and limitations.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1963 (Kandel); 1984 (Greengard)




                                                                                 49
Wolfgang Ketterle (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
PHYSICS: 2001


         The 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Eric A. Cornell,
Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman "for the achievement of Bose-Einstein
condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental
studies of the properties of the condensates".
         The Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) is a new form of matter. “Einstein
predicted that if a gas of such atoms were cooled to a very low temperature all
the atoms would suddenly gather in the lowest possible energy state [as when]
drops of liquid form from a gas, hence the term condensation.”      Cornell and
Wieman produced such a condensate from rubidium atoms, while Ketterle,
working independently, worked with sodium atoms. The sodium atom approach
resulted in the production and manipulation of many more atoms than the
rubidium approach. It is the manipulation of such atoms which is significant in
that the process has revolutionary implications for employing such atoms in the
fields of precise measurement and material structures at the nanotechnology
level.
         Beginning in 1990 and later, AFOSR supported Ketterle’s work dealing
directly with research that led to the Nobel award, for example: Atom Cooling by
Time-Dependent Potentials, Trapping and Focusing Ground State Atoms with
Static Fields and Evaporative Cooling of Sodium Atoms.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1990




                                                                             50
Daniel Kahneman (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ)
ECONOMICS: 2002

      Daniel Kahneman received half of the 2002 Bank of Sweden Prize in
Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2002 "for having integrated
insights from psychological research into economic science, especially
concerning human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty."
      In Dr. Kahneman’s case, AFOSR funding began in 1977 when the Life
Sciences Directorate supported his ground-breaking work on human perception,
attention, and decision-making.      Along with psychologist Amos Twersky,
Kahneman studied the determinants of human choice in risky situations.
Kahneman and Twersky showed that a person’s decisions depend on how the
decision problem is framed or described, and this dependence results in
decisions that deviate in predictable ways from the rational choice strategy. This
research directly supported one of the long-standing goals of the directorate for
advancement in model perception and cognition for improved human
performance.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1977




                                                                               51
John B. Fenn (Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA)
CHEMISTRY: 2002

      Fenn shared one-half of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for the
development of methods for identification and structure analyses of
biological macromolecules” and “for the development of soft desorption
ionization methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological
macromolecules.”
      Early AFOSR support for Dr. John Fenn concerned molecules seeded in
atomic beams. AFOSR continued to support Fenn during the 1980s, while he
was at Yale University, with several contracts dealing with molecular collision
processes.   These studies and other associated systems were then used to
study fundamental chemical reaction dynamics, which ultimately resulted in the
Nobel Prize for chemistry for Herschbach, Lee and Polanyi, in 1986. The 2002
Nobel Prize in chemistry for Fenn was for his work in electrospray mass
spectroscopy that grew out of Fenn’s experience and expertise from his earlier
molecular research.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1975




                                                                            52
Paul C. Lauterbur (Johns Hopkins University)
PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 2003


      The 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded jointly to
Paul C. Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield, “…for their discoveries concerning
magnetic resonance imaging.”
      This Nobel was awarded for advancements by Lauterbur and Mansfield
regarding key discoveries concerning the development of the technique to
visualize different structures (organs) within the human body. These findings
provided the basis for the development of magnetic resonance into a useful
imaging method.
      It was Lauterbur who discovered the process to create two-dimensional
images of structures that could not be visualized by other techniques discovered
previous to this. In 1973, “…he described how addition of gradient magnets to
the main magnet made it possible to visualize a cross section of tubes with
ordinary water surrounded by heavy water. No other imaging method can
differentiate between ordinary and heavy water.”       Lauterbur’s work, when
combined with Mansfield’s discoveries, led to a practical method of obtaining
magnetic resonance images.
      Lauterbur received funding from AFOSR only a few short years after
AFOSR was established. His research grant at that time related to the study of
nuclear magnetic resonance exchange reactions. Today, the non-invasive and
harmless MRI procedure is a common diagnostic tool used many millions of
times per year.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1956




                                                                              53
John L. Hall (University of Colorado, Boulder, CO)
Roy J. Glauber (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA)
Theodor W. Hansch (Max-Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Garching,
Germany)
PHYSICS: 2005
      Roy Glauber was honored with one-half of the 2005 Nobel Physics Prize
for “his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence.” John Hall
shared one-half of the award with Theodor W. Hansch, “for their contributions
to the development of laser precision spectroscopy, including the optical
frequency comb technique.”
        Hall,   Glauber   and   Hansch’s    scientific   career’s   dealt   with   the
characteristics of light, or more specifically, the properties of light on a
macroscopic level (Hall and Hansch) and on a microscopic level (Glauber).
AFOSR funding for Glauber first began in 1962. In 1963 Glauber published a
seminal work where he created a model for photodetection and explained the
fundamental characteristics of different types of light. The work of Glauber and
others in the field of quantum optics led to the formulation that certain states of
light could not be described with classical wave theory. Glauber’s impact has
been so significant in this area that coherent states of light are known as Glauber
states. AFOSR supported Glauber’s quantum optics research throughout the
1960’s and 1970s.
      John Hall first received funding from AFOSR in 1990 for research of
“Stabilized Single-Frequency Operation of Visible Diode Lasers, High-Resolution
Spectroscopy, and Microwave-to-Visible Synthesis,” which, as with Glauber’s
research, is directly related to the subsequent Nobel award. Hall’s research was
supported consistently by AFOSR through the next fifteen years as he refined the
development of laser-based precision spectroscopy which ultimately led to ever
greater accuracy in defining the quantum structure of matter. A major focus of
Hall’s career, has been getting the frequency of various kinds of lasers stabilized,
or fixed, to a very high degree. In his Nobel Lecture, Hall gratefully acknowledged
the support of AFOSR.



                                                                                   54
Hansch was supported by AFOSR beginning in 1990 through his joint
work with two American colleagues at Stanford University relating to the search
for a new laser regime of short pulse generation.
      Glauber was responsible for the established of Quantum Optics, “…in
which quantum theory encompasses the field of optics….explain[ing] the
fundamental differences between hot sources of light such as light bulbs, with a
mixture of frequencies and phases, and lasers which give a specific frequency
and phase.”
      Hall, Glauber and Hansch contributed significantly to scientific research on
a very broad scale as they have greatly enhanced the precision of time
measurements. They did this by making it possible to measure frequencies with
an accuracy of fifteen digits. “Lasers with extremely sharp colors can now be
constructed, and with the frequency comb technique, precise readings can be
made of light of all colors. This technique makes it possible to carry out studies
of, for example, the stability of the constants of nature over time and to develop
extremely accurate clocks and improved GPS technology.”

AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 (Glauber); 1990 (Hall); 1990 (Hansch)




                                                                               55
Robert Grubbs (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA)
CHEMISTRY: 2005


       Robert Grubbs shared the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Yves
Chauvin and Richard Schrock, “for the development of the metathesis
method in organic synthesis.”
       The word metathesis is from the Greek words meta (meaning change),
and thesis (meaning position), or more simply, to change places. In the work
performed by Grubbs, Chauvin and Schrock, the bonds between carbon atoms of
organic molecules are broken and new pairings take place. But what makes this
possible are the catalyst molecules which were developed by the three
respective chemists.    When this process is taken further, different parts of
different molecules can be combined to create new molecules with new
properties. Building on the previous research of Chauvin (who explained how
metathesis works), and Schrock (who created the first useful organic synthesis
catalysts), Grubbs achieved a breakthrough in 1992 with the first well-defined
catalysts for practical laboratory application. This practical application has found
very broad use in the chemical industry with the development of new plastics,
herbicides, drugs, and synthetic pheromones, which are produced more
efficiently, are simpler to use, and are more environmentally friendly.
       AFOSR funded Grubbs through a Multi-University Research Initiative
(MURI) from 1987 through 2002 which centered on cyclohexadiene and
dihydrocatechol polymerization.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1987




                                                                                 56
Thomas C. Schelling (University of Maryland, College Park, MD)
ECONOMICS: 2005


       Thomas Schelling shared the 2005 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic
Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel with Robert Aumann, “for having
enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-
theory analysis.”


       It was during the 1950s, in the midst of the Cold War, that Thomas
Schelling began to apply game theory to the issues of global security and the
arms race. In 1964, Dr. Schelling’s began receiving AFOSR funding, several
years after the publication of his landmark book, The Strategy of Conflict. His
game-theory research proposed the theory that in a conflict a party can
strengthen its position by actually weakening or limiting its options.        Dr.
Schelling’s bold idea prompted new developments in game theory and eventual
application in various methods throughout the social sciences. AFOSR funded
an effort by Schelling in 1966 which resulted in a major scholarly study entitled,
Strategic Analysis of Extra-Legal Internal Political Conflict, which was a
theoretical study of the strategy employed by groups engaged in extra-legal
conflict within states.
       As described by the Nobel awards committee: “Notably, his analysis of
strategic commitments has explained a wide range of phenomena, from the
competitive strategies of firms to the delegation of political decision power,” In
concluding its award remarks, the committee praised Schelling for, “…having
enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory
analysis [and] his advancements have been proved to great relevance for conflict
resolution and efforts to avoid war.”
AFOSR Funding Began: 1960




                                                                               57
George F. Smoot (University of California, Berkeley, CA)
PHYSICS: 2006


       George F. Smoot shared the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics with John C.
Mather “for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the
cosmic microwave background radiation.”
       This Nobel award in Physics is based on work which the two laureates did
to gain a more precise understanding of the origins of galaxies and stars. The
foundation of their work was provided by measurements derived from the COBE
(Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite launched by NASA in 1989. The goal
was to utilize the COBE measurements to investigate the cosmic microwave
background radiation of the universe, which ultimately provided increased
support for the Big Bang theory of the origins of the universe, as opposed to the
steady state theory. Additionally, the in depth study of the COBE measurements
marked the beginning of cosmology as a precise science.
       Smoot had the responsibility of measuring the very slight variations in the
temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the
initial big bang origin of the universe. The form of this radiation, and its various
temperatures across respective wavelengths, resulted in a specific shape across
the entire spectrum whose form is known as blackbody radiation. Smoot’s task
of calculating the small variations in temperature across the blackbody in various
directions is termed anisotropy. AFOSR first funded Smoot’s work in 1980 in
direct support of anisotropic techniques, which can be applied to space-based
surveillance requirements.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1980




                                                                                 58
Yoichiro Nambu (University of Chicago)
PHYSICS: 2008


       Yoichiro Nambu shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics with two
Japanese physicists Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Masskawa. Nambu was
awarded one-half of the Physics prize “for the discovery of the mechanism of
spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics.”
       This Nobel award in Physics is based on work which Nambu did in the
1960s and early 1970s under grants from the Air Force Office of Scientific
Research and other funding agencies.
       According to the official Nobel Museum press release, it was as early as
1960 when Dr. Nambu “formulated his mathematical description of spontaneous
broken symmetry in elementary particle physics. Spontaneous broken symmetry
conceals nature’s order under an apparently jumbled surface. It has proved to be
extremely useful, and Nambu’s theories permeate the Standard Model of
elementary particle physics. The Model unifies the smallest building blocks of all
matter and three of nature’s four forces in one single theory.”
       Dr. Nambu’s groundbreaking work is of significant importance with relation
to CERN’s particle accelerator as its capabilities are fully realized. Dr. Nambu’s
work epitomizes the high risk, long term approach to AFOSR funding, as well as
highlighting the fact that AFOSR’s program managers have a proven track record
of supporting future world class talent early on in their careers.
AFOSR Funding Began: 1965




                                                                               59
Andre Geim (University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom)
Konstantin Novoselov (University of Manchester, Manchester, United
Kingdom)
Physics: 2010


       The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 was awarded jointly to Andre Geim and
Konstantin Novoselov "for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-
dimensional material graphene."
       In 2004, Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov of the University of
Manchester, isolated graphene, a single atomic layer of carbon from graphite. It
is an ancient material, but at the same time, completely new because this
thinnest ever material has turned out to be quite amazing.           Graphene has
remarkable qualities: besides being the thinnest material imaginable, it is
stronger than steel and far better than copper at conducting current; and for
being almost transparent, it is so dense that not even a helium atom can pass
through it.
       This two dimensional material opens up a new world of materials and
applications: faster and more efficient graphene transistors and touch screens
will make for more robust and lightweight electronics, and new material
applications can take advantage of the thin, elastic and lightweight features of
this novel material for a wide variety of plastic/composite material applications.
       In 2008 AFOSR's European Office of Aerospace Research and
Development (EOARD) initiated grants with Dr. Geim's group to explore the
electronic properties of the material. Follow-on grants have led to visits between
the Manchester team and AFRL researchers, as well as exchanges of samples
and data. DoD is showing strong and robust interest in seeing what flat carbon
can achieve, and EOARD provided the critical link to the inventors of this
revolutionary material.
AFOSR Funding Began: 2008




                                                                                     60
Dan Shechtman (Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel)
CHEMISTRY: 2011


       The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2011 was awarded to Dan Shechtman "for
the discovery of quasicrystals".

       In 1982 Dr. Dan Shechtman observed a crystal image in his electron
microscope which, theoretically, could not exist—regular crystal patterns that
never repeat themselves. This configuration of “quasicrystals” was considered
impossible because it was accepted that atoms within crystals formed repeating
symmetrical patterns; it was accepted truth that this was simply how a crystal
was formed. As such, Dr. Shechtman had to battle against longstanding
conventional wisdom, but in the end, his efforts fundamentally altered how
chemists conceive of solid matter.

       For comparative purposes, aperiodic mosaics have helped scientists
understand what quasicrystals look like at the atomic level: the patterns are
regular - they follow mathematical rules - but they never repeat themselves. The
basis for this design is the golden ratio, used extensively in mathematics and the
arts, whereby two quantities are in the golden ratio if the ratio of the sum of the
quantities to the larger quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the
smaller one. In quasicrystals, the ratio of various distances between atoms is
related to the golden mean. This construct was ultimately identified in nature and
found to contribute exceptional strength within various materials.

       It was in 1999 that AFOSR funded Dr. Shechtman to explore ways in
which his quasicrystals could be employed as protective coatings.

AFOSR Funding Began: 1999




                                                                                        61

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AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates

  • 1. AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates The Air Force Office of Scientific Research has created a strong legacy of Nobel Prize winning research. One of the most highly coveted and recognized awards, the Nobel Prize recognizes those who contribute significant achievements in the areas of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, peace, and economic sciences (the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel). The Nobel Foundation was established in 1900, and in 1901 the Nobel Prize became the first international award to be given on an annual basis. Established as outlined in his last will and testament, Dr. Alfred Nobel stated, “…the whole of my remaining realizable estate shall be dealt with in the following way…annually distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit to mankind.” For over one hundred years, Nobel laureates in the fields of physics, chemistry, economics and physiology or medicine have been the recognized leaders in their respective fields, accomplishing research at the very edge of the frontiers of science. Since its establishment in 1951, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) has sponsored 70 researchers who went on to become Nobel laureates. On average, these laureates received AFOSR funding 16 years prior to winning their Nobel awards. The accomplishments of these laureates demonstrate the astute ability of AFOSR program managers to choose world- class researchers to address Air Force requirements and advance Air Force programs. The following descriptions of the work performed by AFOSR-funded Nobel recipients recognize the remarkable scientific achievements that have contributed to the significant United States Air Force advantage on the battlefield. AFOSR has funded 35 laureates in Physics, 24 in Chemistry, eight in Physiology or Medicine, and three in Economics.* ________________________________________________________________ *Select quotes in the following descriptions of respective Nobel Laureate accomplishments are from: "All Nobel Prizes". Nobelprize.org. 28 Jun 2010 http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/all. 1
  • 2. AFOSR-Supported Nobel Prize Laureates Award AFOSR Award Name Year Support Began Type 1. 1955 1954 Physics Polykarp Kusch 2. 1955 1954 Physics Willis E. Lamb 3. 1956 1953 Physics John Bardeen* 4. 1960 1952 Chemistry Willard Libby 5. 1961 1953 Physics Robert Hofstadter 6. 1963 1958 Physics Eugene P. Wigner 7. 1964 1953 Physics Charles H. Townes 8. 1966 1952 Chemistry Robert S. Mulliken 9. 1967 1953 Physics Hans Albrecht Bethe 10. 1967 1959 Medicine Ragnar Granit 11. 1967 1962 Chemistry George Porter 12. 1968 1966 Chemistry Lars Onsager 13. 1969 1958 Physics Murray Gell-Mann 14. 1970 1959 Medicine Ulf Von Euler 15. 1972 1953 Physics John Bardeen* 16. 1972 1959 Physics John R. Schrieffer 17. 1973 1961 Medicine Nikolaas Tinbergen 18. 1973 1968 Physics Brian D. Josephson 19. 1974 1961 Chemistry Paul J. Flory 20. 1976 1959 Chemistry William N. Lipscomb 21. 1977 1968 Physics Philip W. Anderson 22. 1977 1964 Physics John H. Van Vleck 23. 1977 1954 Chemistry Ilya Prigogine 24. 1978 1962 Economics Herbert A. Simon 25. 1979 1958 Physics Sheldon L. Glashow 26. 1979 1962 Physics Abdus Salam 27. 1979 1958 Physics Steven Weinberg 28. 1980 1959 Chemistry Walter Gilbert 29. 1981 1975 Physics Nicolaas Bloembergen 30. 1981 1956 Physics Kai M. Siegbahn 31. 1981 1981 Physics Arthur Schawlow 32. 1981 1959 Phys/Med David H. Hubel 33. 1981 1959 Phys/Med Thorsten N. Wiesel 34. 1981 1962 Chemistry Kenichi Fukui 35. 1981 1980 Chemistry Roald Hoffman 2
  • 3. Award AFOSR Award Name Year Support Began Type 36. 1983 1961 Physics S. Chandrasekhar 37. 1983 1961 Physics William A. Fowler 38. 1986 1981 Chemistry John C. Polanyi 39. 1986 1979 Chemistry Dudley R. Herschbach 40. 1986 1971 Chemistry Yuan T. Lee 41. 1987 1962 Chemistry Donald J. Cram 42. 1988 1970 Physics Melvin Schwartz 43. 1990 1968 Chemistry Elias J. Corey 44. 1990 1961 Physics Jerome I. Friedman 45. 1990 1961 Physics Henry W. Kendall 46. 1992 1962 Chemistry Rudolph A. Marcus 47. 1995 1995 Chemistry Mario Molina 48. 1996 1972 Chemistry Richard E. Smalley 49. 1997 1988 Physics Steven Chu 50. 1998 1985 Physics Daniel C. Tsui 51. 1999 1986 Chemistry Ahmed Zewail 52. 2000 1988 Chemistry Alan J. Heeger 53. 2000 1970 Chemistry Alan G. MacDiarmid 54. 2000 1958 Physics Jack S. Kilby 55 2000 1995 Physics Herbert Kroemer 56. 2000 1984 Medicine Paul Greengard 57. 2000 1963 Medicine Eric R. Kandel 58. 2001 1990 Physics Wolfgang Ketterle 59. 2002 1975 Chemistry John B. Fenn 60. 2002 1977 Economics Daniel Kahneman 61. 2003 1956 Medicine Paul C. Lauterbur 62. 2005 1990 Physics Theodor W. Hansch 63. 2005 1991 Physics John L. Hall 64. 2005 1962 Physics Roy J. Glauber 65. 2005 1987 Chemistry Robert H. Grubbs 66. 2005 1960 Economics Thomas C. Schelling 67. 2006 1985 Physics George F. Smoot 68. 2008 1965 Physics Yoichiro Nambu 69. 2010 2008 Physics Andre Geim 70. 2010 2008` Physics Konstantin Novoselov 71. 2011 1999 Chemistry Daniel Shechtman *Note: John Bardeen awarded Physics Nobel in 1956 and 1972. (Current: August 2011) 3
  • 4. Polykarp Kusch (Columbia University, New York, NY) Willis Lamb (Stanford University, Stanford, CA) PHYSICS: 1955 In the area of Physics, many breakthroughs have occurred with the aid of AFOSR funding. In 1955, Kusch and Lamb shared the prize for "precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron" and "discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum," respectively. Prior to his laureate, Kusch studied the effects of magnetic fields on beams of atoms with Nobel Laureate Dr. Isidor Rabi, who had a profound influence on Kusch's research. Through diligence and effort, Kusch demonstrated that magnetic properties of electrons were not consistent with existing theories. He accurately measured the magnetic moment of the electron and its behavior in hydrogen and numerous atomic, molecular, and nuclear properties by radio-frequency beam techniques. Lamb joined the faculty of Colombia University in 1938, and worked in the radiation laboratory alongside Kusch. In 1947, Lamb applied new techniques to measuring the hyperfine structure of lines appearing in the spectrum of light and found their positions to be slightly different from theoretical predictions. He later devised microwave techniques for examining the spectral lines of helium. The varied scope of Lamb's research ranged from such diverse areas as the fluctuation in cosmic ray showers and order-disorder problems, to the ejection of electrons by metastable atoms. The research by these two winners resulted in the development of techniques for microwave interaction with atoms and atomic beams, now used in many technological applications. One important application to the Air Force and within the civilian economy is the cesium beam atomic clock, an essential part of the Global Positioning System (GPS). Without the incredibly accurate time-keeping capabilities of atomic clocks, the GPS would not be possible. AFOSR Funding Began: 1954 4
  • 5. John Bardeen (University of Illinois, Urbana, IL) PHYSICS: 1956 Dr. John Bardeen was the first scientist to win two Nobel prizes in the same category. He won his first Nobel physics prize in 1956 for "co-invention of the transistor," a tiny electronic device capable of performing most of the functions of a vacuum tube. In 1972, he shared the prize with two others for their "theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory," an abbreviation formed by the first letter of each of the winner's surnames. While Bardeen developed the transistor at Bell Labs in the late 1940s, it was in 1953 that AFOSR funded Bardeen and others in the refinement of integrated circuit technology for Air Force applications Air Force systems in use today would be far more bulky, heavier and antiquated if not for Bardeen's discovery. Dr. Bardeen's second award was for the "development of a theory to explain superconductivity," the disappearance of electrical resistance in certain metals and alloys at temperatures near absolute zero. His work has benefited the medical field with applications to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and the electronic field with the development of sensors, transducers, magnets and particle accelerators. AFOSR Funding Began: 1953 5
  • 6. Willard Libby (University of California, Los Angeles) CHEMISTRY: 1960 Willard F. Libby won the 1960 Nobel Chemistry Prize for his "method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, genealogy, geophysics, and other branches of science." Libby studied radioactive isotope carbon-14 since its discovery in 1941and is best known for his radiocarbon dating techniques. He first showed that C-14 is present in small amounts of C02 in our atmosphere and is absorbed by all life forms in regular amounts up to a point, after which no more is taken in. Using this knowledge, Libby postulated, together with the known half-life rate of 5730 years and the calculated amount of the isotope present in the object, one could calculate an approximate age for ancient materials. In 1947, Libby and his students at the Institute for Nuclear Studies developed the method of C14 dating using a highly sensitive Geiger counter. Since C14 decays at a measurable rate upon the death of an organism, Libby was able to determine the age of organic artifacts by measuring the amount of remaining C14. The tests proved reliable for objects up to 70,000 years. Mr. Libby's dating technique is extremely valuable to earth scientists, anthropologists and especially archaeologists, virtually eliminating the educated guesses about the ages of various artifacts based on evidence found at the site. Now that samples from around the world can be tested, a new chronology has emerged that knits together archaeological findings from around the world. His Nobel Prize citation read: "Seldom has such a single discovery in chemistry had such an impact on the thinking of so many fields of human endeavor. Seldom has a single discovery generated such wide public interest." AFOSR funding for Libby covered a wide range of requirements: radioactive isotopes, optical transparency, high-pressure chemistry, electron tunneling, pollution control catalysts, and industrial chemistry in space were but a few of Libby's research efforts. AFOSR Funding Began: 1954 6
  • 7. Robert Hofstadter (Stanford University, Stanford, CA) PHYSICS: 1961 Robert Hofstadter won the 1961 Physics Nobel for his "pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the structure of the nucleons." Hofstadter used a linear electron accelerator to measure and explore the constituents of atomic nuclei. At the time, protons, neutrons, and electrons were all thought to be particles without structure; but Hofstadter discovered that protons and neutrons have a definite size and form. He was able to determine the precise size of the proton and neutron and provide the first reasonably consistent picture of the structure of the atomic nucleus. He also made substantial contributions to gamma ray spectroscopy, leading to the use of radioactive tracers to locate tumors and other disorders. During World War II he worked as a physicist at the National Bureau of Standards, where he helped develop the proximity fuse, an antiaircraft weapon. His work on X-Ray detection in semiconductors and scintillators contributed to US strategic systems in two ways. Semiconductor and scintillation detectors are used in flash x-ray machine work that is part of nuclear hardening of strategic systems including Peacekeeper Missile and Minuteman. They are also used in circuitry that protects on-board computer systems in such missiles from disruption by nuclear radiation. AFOSR Funding Began: 1953 7
  • 8. Eugene Wigner (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ) PHYSICS: 1963 Noble Laureate in 1963 for Physics, Dr. Eugene Wigner received his prize for his "contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles." Wigner's work helped to disclose the structure of the atomic nucleus and extended quantum mechanics theory relations to the nature of the proton and neutron. In 1939, Wigner was one of five scientists who informed President Franklin D. Roosevelt about the possible military use of atomic energy. Known as the "Father of Nuclear Engineering," Wigner's work contributed to the development of the atomic bomb and the design of commercial nuclear reactors. He designed the first fast neutron breeder reactor. Under AFOSR contract, Wigner explored a wide range of topics. He discussed the usefulness of mathematics as a tool for the formation of the laws of physics; explored various aspects of the future of nuclear energy; and also reviewed the standard theory of measurements in quantum mechanics. AFOSR Funding Began: 1958 8
  • 9. Charles Townes (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA) PHYSICS: 1964 Beginning in 1953, AFOSR helped to sponsor the research of Dr. Charles Townes, who went on to win the 1964 prize in Physics for his "fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle." Townes is credited for inventing the maser, a device that amplifies electromagnetic waves. This technology provided the means for sensitive reception of communications and for precise navigation. The maser also provided the basis for its successor, the laser. AFOSR helped to fund the early maser and follow-on laser work of Dr. Townes. The result of this revolutionary research transformed communications, navigation, astronomy, radar, atomic clocks, surgery and many industrial applications. His discoveries have had wide- ranging impact not only on the Air Force, but our entire society. AFOSR Funding Began: 1953 9
  • 10. Robert Mulliken (University of Chicago, Chicago, IL) CHEMISTRY: 1966 Winning the Noble prize in Chemistry in 1966, Dr. Robert Mulliken's research was recognized for "fundamental work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method." His early work concentrated on isotopes and on diatomic band spectra, followed by theoretical work to systematize the electronic state of molecules. Later work by Dr. Mulliken involved extensive research of the structure and spectra of molecular complexes and also extending and progressing the structure and spectra of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen and other small molecules. A pioneer, Mulliken significantly contributed to the development of methods now used in computational chemistry. His work led to the advancement of computer codes with real predictive capabilities that are now used widely throughout the Department of Defense. Mulliken's relationship with AFOSR dates back to 1952 and ensuing years, when Mulliken's research group obtained computationally practicable expressions for two-center integrals and went on to simplify the time consuming effort of programming the formulas for molecular integrals. The methods developed by Mulliken enable calculations of many molecular properties to guide the process of synthesizing new compounds, such as fuels and propellants, and are also used to develop sensors that can help with the defense against chemical and biological attacks. AFOSR Funding Began: 1952 10
  • 11. Hans Bethe (Cornell University, Ithaca, NY) PHYSICS: 1967 Hans Bethe received the Nobel prize in Physics in 1967 for his "contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars." Bethe suggested that the production of energy by the sun and other stars occurs through thermonuclear fusion, a series of nuclear reactions by which hydrogen is converted into helium. Bethe provided great insight into the fundamentals of heavy ions and their interaction with matter. His work led directly to a capability to accurately predict energy deposition of heavy ions in any kind of material. With the advent of Air Force space satellites and the discovery of the intense radiation belts surrounding the earth, radiation vulnerability of these satellites became a serious problem for the Air Force. Dr Bethe's work applies directly to the interactions of these radiations and his prize-winning work is used to assess survivability from radiation for every Air Force satellite in orbit today. AFOSR Funding Began: 1953 11
  • 12. Ragnar Granit (The Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden) PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1967 Ragnar Granit was co-winner of the Nobel prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1967 for his "discoveries concerning the primary physiological and chemical visual processes in the eye." As a neurophysiologist, Dr. Granit studied nerve impulses to understand how the eye works with the brain to create vision. Granit worked on a method to use microscopic electrodes to measure the stimuli of the optic nerves of the retina, the part of the eye that sends the image gathered by the lens to the brain. He realized that when light is received by the retina the light has both an excitatory and inhibitory effect on the optic nerves and that this combination of effects creates contrast in the image received by the brain. In 1933 he helped to develop the electroretinogram (ERG), a device used to measure the activity of the retina. He used it for vision research in general, but especially for color vision research. In the mid-1940s, Granit turned his attention to the study of the length and tension meters in the muscles known as muscle spindles and tendon organs. Granit's work in this area did much to explain the physiology of muscle control and excitation. Granit co-authored two reports in this field under AFOSR auspices. Dr. Granit's research on the electrical properties of neurons led to discoveries relating to the electrical signals of brain nerve cells. Those findings were used to assess cognitive workloads under a variety of conditions that affect an individual's performance. In addition, engineers are using his methods for determining functional properties for networks of nerve cells to develop more effective designs for analog computers and non-linear dynamic control systems. AFOSR Funding Began: 1958 12
  • 13. George Porter (Royal Institution of Great Britain, London, England) CHEMISTRY: 1967 George Porter shared the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equilibrium by means of very short pulses of energy." As Porter observed, one of the principal activities of a scientist was extending the very limited senses of man, enabling him to observe phenomena beyond his normal experience. Microscopes and microbalances allow the observation of things which man cannot perceive through his own senses. In the dimension of time, man's perception is limited to about one-twentieth of a second, the response time of the eye. However, most fundamental chemical reactions occur in the range of milliseconds or less, making it necessary to observe reactions in microtime. It was in the field of making these observations and interpreting the resulting data that Porter made lasting contributions to science by the method of flash photolysis. Employing this process, Porter was able to yield information concerning the mechanism and kinetics of the photochemical reactions that occurred. Porter's early relationship with the U.S. Air Force concerned research on low-level excitation and energy transfer of gases. His later work with AFOSR dealt with energy storage and transfer on the molecular level to provide understanding of processes related to Air Force needs in solar energy conversion devices, photographic imaging, flash blindness protection, and radiation damage control in biological systems. AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 13
  • 14. Lars Onsager (Yale University, New haven, CT) CHEMISTRY: 1968 Lars Onsager won the 1968 Nobel Chemistry prize "for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes." One could have expected that the importance of his "reciprocal relations in irreversible processes" would have been immediately obvious to the scientific community. Instead it turned out that Onsager was far ahead of his time. After publication it attracted almost no attention for more than a third of a century. It was only after WWII that the concept became more widely known and eventually played a dominant role in the rapid development of irreversible thermodynamics, with numerous applications not only in physics and chemistry but also in biology and technology. The great importance of irreversible thermodynamics becomes apparent if we realize that almost all common processes are irreversible and cannot by themselves go backwards. Examples are conduction of heat from a hot to a cold body and mixing or diffusion. When a cold lump of sugar is dissolved in a cup of hot tea these processes take place simultaneously. Onsager's great contribution was that he could prove that if the equations governing the flows are written in an appropriate form, then there exist certain simple connections between the coefficients in these equations. These connections - the reciprocal relations - make possible a complete theoretical description of irreversible processes. Earlier attempts to treat such processes by means of classical thermodynamics gave little success. Onsager's research for AFOSR dealt with low-temperature physics. AFOSR Funding Began: 1966 14
  • 15. Murray Gell-Mann (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA) PHYSICS: 1969 Murray Gell-Mann won the Nobel prize in 1969 for his "contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions." As a theoretical physicist Gell-Mann is known for his classification of subatomic particles and his proposal for the existence of quarks. His research in particle physics concerned the interactions between protons and neutrons. On the basis of a proposed property called "strangeness," conserved by particles involved in strong and electromagnetic interactions, Gell-Mann grouped related particles into multiplets, or families. In 1963 he and a colleague George Zweig advanced the "quark" theory. They hypothesized that quarks, particles carrying fractional electric charges, are the smallest particles of matter. Dr Gell-Mann's "eightfold way" theory brought order to the chaos created by the discovery of some 100 particles in the atom's nucleus. He found that all of these particles, including the neutron and proton, are composed of fundamental building blocks- quarks-that are permanently confined by forces coming from the exchange of "gluons." He called the quantum field theory of quarks and gluons, "quantum chromodynamics," which seems to account for all the nuclear particles and their strong interactions. AFOSR Funding Began: 1958 15
  • 16. Ulf von Euler (The Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden) PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1970 Armed, in part, with funding from AFOSR, Dr. Ulf von Euler made important discoveries in the areas of physiology and medicine. He shared the Nobel Prize with two others in 1970 for "discoveries concerning the humoral transmitters in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation." Von Euler is credited for discovering that neural transmitters are stored and released from nerve cell granules, which controls the body's response to stress or exertion. His findings stimulated a tremendous amount of research regarding the affect neurochemical influences have on the brain, heart and other body systems. The subsequent work produced major advances in the way those with mental illness, heart disease and other neurogenic conditions are treated. Dr. von Euler's work is used by the Air Force to learn more about a person's neural control as they go about their normal daily routine as well as during periods of sleep. This research is used to help determine the effectiveness of an individual during sustained operations. AFOSR Funding Began: 1960 16
  • 17. John Bardeen (University of Illinois, Urbana, IL) John R. Schrieffer (University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA) PHYSICS: 1972 Dr. John Bardeen was the first scientist to win two Nobel prizes in the same category -- Physics. He won his first prize in 1956 for "co-invention of the transistor," a tiny electronic device capable of performing most of the functions of a vacuum tube. In 1972, he shared the prize with John R. Schrieffer and Leon N. Cooper for their jointly developed "theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory," an abbreviation formed by the first letter of each of the winner's surnames. While Bardeen developed the transistor at Bell Labs in the late 1940s, it was in 1953 that AFOSR funded Bardeen and others in the refinement of integrated circuit technology for Air Force applications. Air Force systems in use today would be far more bulky, heavier and antiquated if not for Bardeen's discovery. Dr. Bardeen's second award was for the "development of a theory to explain superconductivity," the disappearance of electrical resistance in certain metals and alloys at temperatures near absolute zero. Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer’s groundbreaking work has been the basis for follow on successes regarding quantum mechanical tunnel phenomena to study superconductors, the discovery of magnetic flux quantization and Josephson junction effects. Dr’s Bardeen and Schrieffer first received AFOSR funding in the 1950s, resulting in seminal research reports on superconductivity in the following years. Their BCS theory has benefited a broad range of basic scientific research with applications to national defense, commercial, industrial production processes, as well as the medical field with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and most significantly in the electronic arena with the development of sensors, transducers, magnets and particle accelerators. AFOSR Funding Began: 1953 (Bardeen); 1959 (Schrieffer) 17
  • 18. Nikolass Tinbergen (University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom) PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1973 Dr. Nikolaas Tinbergen shared the Nobel prize for Physiology & Medicine with two others in 1973 for their "discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behavior pattems." It was the first time the Nobel Committee recognized research in sociobiology or ethology. As a zoologist, Dr Tinbergen's experimental work demonstrated how complex patterns of animal behavior depended on both slowly changing inherited behavioral patterns and more rapid-paced changes due to learning. His findings stimulated considerable scientific work in such diverse fields as animal communication and human language learning, mate selection, evolutionary theory and, most important to the Air Force, theories of cooperative behavior. These theories help explain and predict ways that large numbers of simple systems can produce very complex goal-directed behaviors with minimal communication between them. The path of Tinbergen's work passed through cybernetics in the 1960s, learning automata in the 1970s, neural networks and "animats" in the 1980s, to modern control theory. The rules that determine properties of cooperating microsatellites, micro-air vehicles, and ground-based "nano-bots" may be found to share much in common with the rules that determine goal-seeking behaviors found in ant colonies. AFOSR Funding Began: 1961 18
  • 19. Brian Josephson (Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kngdom) PHYSICS: 1973 Nobel Laureate in Physics, Dr. Brian Josephson, won the 1973 prize for his "theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena that are generally known as the Josephson effects." He invented a superconductivity device that bears his name - the Josephson Junction - which is used in digital electronic applications. This device provides the basis for the world's most sensitive magnetometers and the fastest, lowest power electronic switching elements. Josephson was responsible for developing the theory now known universally as the Josephson effects in superconductors, which is used to make the world's fastest, high-resolution electronic circuitry, currently used in Air Force electronic countermeasures systems, and many other applications. AFOSR Funding Began: 1968 19
  • 20. Paul Flory (Stanford University, Stanford, CA) CHEMISTRY: 1974 Dr. Paul John Flory, won the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1974 for his "fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of the macromolecules." Dr. Flory's first research focused mostly on photochemistry and spectroscopy, which enables scientists to determine the composition of molecules by analyzing the light they emit when heated. Later, Flory began researching the physical chemistry of polymers. He studied their properties in solution and in bulk and his research revealed the connections between the chemical structures of the individual polymer molecules and their physical properties. Considered by many to be the "founder of polymer science," Flory's work with nylon and synthetic rubber proved to be of great commercial importance. Dr. Flory developed the framework to understand the physics and viscoelasticity behavior of polymers. This framework led to the development of advanced resins used in organic-matrix, carbon-fiber reinforced composites currently used in the wings and fuselages of many Air Force aircraft, including the F-16, B-2, F-22 and Joint Strike Fighter (JSF). AFOSR Funding Began: 1961 20
  • 21. William Lipscomb (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) CHEMISTRY: 1976 William N. Lipscomb put his AFOSR funding to optimal use when he earned the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1976 for his "studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding." Boranes are compounds of boron and hydrogen. By developing x-ray techniques that later proved useful in many chemical applications, Lipscomb and his associates were able to map the molecular structures of numerous boranes and their derivatives. The stability of boranes could not be explained by traditional concepts of electron bonding -- in which each pair of atoms is linked by a pair of electrons -- because boranes lacked sufficient electrons. Lipscomb showed how three atoms could share a pair of electrons. In 1961, the work of Dr. Lipscomb was featured in AFOSR Chemistry Program Review to illustrate some of his innovative crystallographic work. Since the early 1960s his research also focused on the relationship between three-dimensional structures of enzymes and how they catalyze reactions. He is noted for his famous quotation: "The creative process, first of all, requires a good nine hours of sleep a night. Second, it must not be pushed by the need to produce practical applications. " AFOSR Funding Began: 1959 21
  • 22. Philip Anderson (Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ) John Van Vleck (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) PHYSICS: 1977 Philip W. Anderson, John H. Van Vleck, and Nevill Mott, won the Nobel Prize in 1977 for their contribution to the "fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems." Anderson is one of the leading theorists on superconductivity and won his part of the prize for developments in advanced electronic circuitry. He showed conditions under which an electron in a disordered or imperfect system can either move through the system as a whole or stay in a specific position -- becoming a localized electron. This development provided a better understanding of electrical conduction in magnetic materials. His research in solid-state physics made possible the development of inexpensive electronic switching and memory devices in computers. Anderson also has done work on pulsar glitches with David Pines. He is credited with developing concept of the "Higgs" boson in 1962. Dr. Van Vleck was recognized for his contributions to the understanding of the behavior of electrons in magnetic, noncrystalline solid materials. Early during the 1930s, Van Vleck developed the first fully articulated quantum mechanical theory of magnetism. Later he was a chief architect of the ligand field theory of molecular bonding. The research performed in solid-state physics by these Nobel laureates made possible the development of inexpensive electronic switching and memory devices in computers, which are widely used in industry and in military systems. Van Vleck also contributed to a variety of studies, most notably, on the spectra of free molecules and paramagnetic relaxation. AFOSR Funding Began: 1964 (Van Fleck); 1968 (Anderson) 22
  • 23. Ilya Prigogine (Universite Libre de Bruxelles, Brussells, Belgium; and University of Texas, Austin, TX) CHEMISTRY: 1977 Dr. Ilya Prigogine won the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1977 for his "contributions to non- equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures." Prigogine focused most of his work on better understanding the role of time in biology and in the physical sciences. He has contributed significantly to the understanding of irreversible processes, particularly in systems far from equilibrium. He initiated the application of thermodynamics to irreversible processes in both living and inanimate systems. Prigogine's contributions have come largely in irreversibility, or, as he calls it, "the arrow of time." His concept of dissipative structures describes the workings of open systems -- systems in which there is an exchange of matter and energy with the outside environment. His theory has been widely adopted by the U.S. Department of Transportation to predict traffic-flow patterns. In biology, the theory has proved useful in understanding a number of phenomena, including the glycolytic, or sugar, cycle, a metabolic process by which living cells extract energy from food. As a leader in the field of nonlinear statistical mechanics, his work contributed to the ability to analyze processes in complex systems. The contribution of his work to DoD is in understanding the atmospheric processes that are governed by complex interrelated phenomena. AFOSR Funding Began: 1953 23
  • 24. Herbert A. Simon (Carnegie Mellon University) ECONOMICS: 1978 The 1978 Alfred Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded to Herbert A. Simon, “for his pioneering research into the decision- making process within economic organizations.” Herbert Simon was very much a renaissance man as his undergraduate and graduate work deviated sharply from classical economic theory, and even included making a “…serious study of graduate-level physics in order to strengthen and practice….mathematical skills and to gain an intimate knowledge of what a ‘hard’ science was like, particularly on the theoretical side.” Simon made an early name for himself in economics with the publication of his book Administrative Behavior in 1947, which looked at companies as adaptive systems comprised of various components, not in search of maximum profits, but searching to find solutions to problems. His critical work had obvious application to large bureaucratic/government organizations dealing with expansive planning, budgeting and control issues. AFOSR funded numerous studies by Simon beginning in 1964 dealing with game theory, and moving on to efficiencies in computer time-sharing in 1966. AFOSR, along with the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), supported Simon (and co-author Allen Newell) in a long term study that ultimately became a classic book in the field of information processing titled Human Problem Solving (1972). In many ways the book was the genesis for the application of computers—both as a tool and a comparative model—to study how humans think. AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 24
  • 25. Sheldon Glashow (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) Steven Weinberg (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) Abdus Salam (International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, Italy, and Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, United Kingdom) PHYSICS: 1979 AFOSR funded physicists Sheldon L. Glashow, Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1979 for their "contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including inter alia the prediction of the weak neutral current ." Four forces were believed to drive the laws of physics: gravity, electromagnetism, the strong force (which holds an atom's nucleus together), and the weak force (which breaks an atom apart, as in radioactivity). Independent works by Drs. Glashow, Salam and Weinberg resulted in the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces. Glashow's research involved many aspects of particle theory, cosmology, and classical mechanics. He received the award for his pioneering work on the electroweak theory. This theory, completed in the 1970s, discusses the relationship between two of the four fundamental forces of nature, electromagnetic force and weak force. Through these forces, subatomic particles interact with each other. The electromagnetic force holds molecules together and keeps electrons in orbit around an atomic nucleus. The weak force causes radioactive decay in the nucleus. Glashow also predicted the existence of the charm quark, one of the quarks that make up elementary particles. Dr. Salam is also famous for his contributions to the electroweak theory. Additional electroweak theory research was conducted by Steven Weinberg, who, around 1967, theorized that the electromagnetic and the weak forces are the same at extremely high energy levels. The validity of the theory was ascertained in the following years through experiments carried out at the superprotosynchrotron facility at CERN in Geneva, which led to the discovery of the W and Z particles. Salam's electroweak theory is still the core of the 'standard 25
  • 26. model' of high-energy physics. Their work represented one giant step closer to physicists' long-dreamed of goal of finding a single elegant equation to explain all the matter and forces in nature. The work of these three nuclear physicists on isotopic spin provides some of the basic understanding that AFOSR is building upon in studies of spin isomers, which have significant ability to store large amounts of energy. This AFOSR funded work is regarded as revolutionary. If developments are successful, weapons systems of unprecedented capability will emerge along with numerous applications in space and industry. AFOSR Funding Began: 1958 (Glashow); 1958 (Weinberg); 1962 (Salam) 26
  • 27. Walter Gilbert (Harvard University, Boston, MA) CHEMISTRY: 1980 AFOSR-funded Walter Gilbert was a co-recipient of the 1980 Chemistry award “for contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids.” Although Gilbert’s doctorate and initial research was in theoretical physics, it was in the summer of 1960 that he joined a colleague in an experiment to identify messenger RNA, which is a carrier of information from the genome to the protein producing ribosomes. After this successful endeavor, Gilbert eventually shifted his work full time to experimental molecular biology and ultimately reached the point where his contributions to the field made it possible to map out the structure and function of a cell’s deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. The chemistry of a living cell is governed by DNA within its chromosomes, and DNA carries out its task by determining which enzymes a cell manufactures. The enzymes impart to the cell its characteristic chemical pattern by their ability to facilitate various chemical reactions in a specific manner. Gilbert (who shared the award with Paul Berg and Frederick Sanger) made significant breakthroughs regarding the way in which DNA, as carrier of genetic traits, governs the chemical machinery of the cell. Gilbert and Sanger independently developed different methods to determine the exact sequence of nucleotide building blocks in DNA. In particular, Gilbert investigated the structure of those parts of a bacterial chromosome which control the reading of the genetic message. The investigations of Berg, Gilbert and Sanger have given us detailed insight into the chemical basis of the genetic machinery in living organisms. Their work will play a decisive role in efforts to understand the nature of cancer, as in this disease there is a malfunction in the control, by the genetic material, of the growth and division of cells. AFOSR Funding Began: 1959 27
  • 28. Nicolaas Bloembergen (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) Arthur Schawlow (Stanford University, Stanford, CA) Kai Siegbahn (Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden) PHYSICS: 1981 AFOSR-funded Nicolaas Bloembergen and Arthur Schawlow were co- recipients of the 1981 Physics Nobel for their "contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy." AFOSR also funded Kai M. Siegbahn whose Nobel prize was awarded "for his contribution to the development of high- resolution electron spectroscopy." Bloembergen's contributions to non-linear optics and spectroscopy advanced both nonlinear theory and development of instrumentation. The resulting impact during the last 20 years has been significant across science and engineering disciplines. For example, his findings for "four wave mixing" are being extended to develop advanced technology for non-contact NDE (non- destructive evaluation) of airframes which greatly benefits the Air Force and DoD. Recently a laser ultrasonic system was developed that is capable of detecting damage in aging airframe structures and engine components without having physical contact with them. In the 1950s, Arthur Schawlow collaborated with Nobel Laureate Charles Townes on maser and laser theory and design. They sought ways to extend the maser principle to amplify electromagnetic waves into shorter wavelengths of infrared and visible light. Schawlow's solution was to build a cavity consisting of a synthetic ruby that would serve as a resonator for light waves. His work was important toward development of techniques for "pumping" energy into materials suc as ruby and carbon dioxide. When such materials have been pumped, they can be induced to "lase," to emit that extra energy as a beam of coherent light. The award to Kal Siegbahn was for his work in electron spectroscopy, or the analysis of electrons expelled from atomic systems. Before his work, electron spectroscopy was limited. When a substance was excited with radiation, the energy of the electrons emitted could not be analyzed in their 28
  • 29. entirety. In 1954, Siegbahn developed a type of spectrometer that provided a more accurate analysis of the electron's energy and electromagnetic spectrum. This work contributed to the development of high-tech polymer materials used in a wide variety of applications to include the aerospace industry. AFOSR Funding Began: 1956 (Siegbahn); 1975 (Bloembergen); 1981 (Schawlow) 29
  • 30. Kenichi Fukui (Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan) Roald Hoffman (Cornell University) CHEMISTRY: 1981 Dr. Kenichi Fukui and Dr. Roald Hoffman were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1981 "for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions." Dr. Fukui did experimental work in organic chemistry (the chemistry of compounds containing carbon), including fossil fuels -- oil, gas, and coal. In 1952, he discovered that one could understand chemical reactions in terms of the density of electron clouds around reacting atoms. It was in the mid-1960s that Dr. Hoffman worked with 1965 Chemistry Nobel winner R. B. Woodward at Harvard, demonstrating outstanding achievements in experimentally building up complex organic molecules. Much earlier, in the mid-1950s, Fukui developed the theory that during chemical reactions molecules share loosely bonded electrons, which occupy so-called frontier orbitals. This was the key for Fukui and Hoffman, who, working independently, found that “the symmetry properties of frontier orbitals could explain certain reaction courses that had previously been difficult to understand.” Their frontier orbital theory became a powerful tool for understanding the reactivity of molecules. This theory advanced the understanding of the mechanism of chemical reactions, especially in the production of organic compounds; understanding of the path of chemical reactions and on the geometric shapes of reacting molecules. This led to other discoveries and, in particular, the development of new pharmaceuticals. AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 (Fukui); 1980 (Hoffman) 30
  • 31. David Hubel (Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA) Thorsten Wiesel (Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA) PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 1981 AFOSR-funded scientists Drs. David H. Hubel and Thorsten N. Wiesel won a Nobel prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1981 for their "discoveries concerning information processing in the visual system." In 1958 Hubel and Wiesel decided to study the mechanisms of the brain's visual system. In experiments with cats and monkeys, they used tiny conductors inserted into the brain to record how various visual stimuli activate different cells at different locations within the visual cortex. They also injected radioactively labeled amino acids into the retina under specific conditions of stimulation. The researchers were then able to trace the exact path of the amino acids, thereby uncovering a route of transmission for nerve impulses under specific conditions. Some years later, Wiesel and Hubel demonstrated that the brain's ability to see is formed through use of the eyes in the first few weeks after birth. This prompted doctors to immediately correct congenital cataracts or crossed eyes. Their primary discoveries in vision suggested both the elementary units of visual analysis and a logic by which the brain could conjoin these units to represent visual scenes. Computer algorithms that incorporate similar analysis and logic are now a mainstay of automatic systems for image recognition and speech recognition. Many in today's military benefit from their discovery of motion-sensitive cortical cells, which led to the study of how humans detect and track moving targets. AFOSR Funding Began: 1959 31
  • 32. Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (University of Chicago, Chicago, IL) William Fowler (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA) PHYSICS: 1983 Subramanyan Chandrasekhar and William A. Fowler, both funded by AFOSR, were co-recipients of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1981. Chandrasekhar won for his "theoretical studies of the physical processes important to the structure and evolution of the stars." Fowler was honored for his "theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe." Chandrasekhar developed many theories that changed the way people look at the universe. His initial research involved stellar evolution and the theory of white dwarfs. At the time, astronomers were beginning to notice that stars vary in size and temperature, which indicated what phase a star was in its life. The common belief stated that stars in their final stages would become white dwarfs because they would eventually cool. Chandrasekhar deduced that not all stars could become white dwarfs. He discovered that only stars with a mass up to 1.44 times that of the sun could become a white dwarf. In a massive star, equilibrium between gas pressures and gravity cannot occur. Thus, the star would not be able to collapse on itself and become a white dwarf. This boundary for stars is known as the Chandrasekhar limit. His work on astrophysics and stellar dynamics was seminal in the development of models of nucleosynthesis and thermonuclear reactions. Such knowledge was critical in the development of the U.S. thermonuclear arsenal. In addition, his work led to models for the solar interior, which permitted development of a capability to perform space weather forecasting. Fowler studied how chemical elements are formed in nuclear reactions, especially in the formation of stars. He also studied the radio emissions of quasars and the functioning of subatomic particles such as neutrinos. For decades he investigated the nuclear reactions believed to occur in stellar interiors. 32
  • 33. Fowler was primarily concerned with studies of fusion reactions -- how the nuclei of lighter chemical elements fuse to create the heavier ones in a process known as nucleosynthesis. In 1957, in the seminal paper "Synthesis of the Elements in the Stars," Fowler showed that all of the elements from carbon to uranium could be produced by nuclear processes in stars, starting only with the hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang. This work put Fowler and his collaborators at the forefront of some of the most central issues in modern physics and cosmology: the formation of the chemical elements inside stars; the Big Bang origin of the universe; and the current "dark matter" debate over what makes up most of the universe. AFOSR Funding Began: 1960 (Chandrasekhar); 1960 (Fowler) 33
  • 34. Dudley Herschbach (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) John Polanyi (University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada) Yuan T. Lee (University of Chicago) CHEMISTRY: 1986 AFOSR-funded Dudley R. Herschbach, John C. Polanyi, and Yuan T. Lee were co-recipients of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1981 for their "contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes.” Their work opened a new area of research in chemistry -- reaction dynamics -- that has provided a much more detailed understanding of how chemical reactions take place. Dr. Herschbach shared the prize for helping to apply the technology and theory of physics to chemistry. He invented the "crossed molecular beam technique," which allows for the detailed analysis of chemical reactions through the use of supersonic molecular beams. Polanyi was cited for developing "the method of infrared chemiluminescence, in which the extremely weak infrared emission from a newly formed molecule is measured and analyzed. He used this method to elucidate the detailed energy disposal during chemical reactions. Because he understood the source of this light emission he was able to propose vibrational and chemical lasers, the most powerful sources of infrared radiation ever developed. Yuan T. Lee, who initially worked in cooperation with Herschbach, developed the method of crossed molecular beams towards its use for general reactions, most notably, using this method for the study of important reactions for relatively large molecules. Combined, the work of this trio provided the fundamental understanding about the details of how reactions occur at the atomic and molecular levels. Their pioneering work was pivotal in the development of the first chemical lasers that would form the basis for numerous DoD laser-based research efforts. Their work on reaction dynamics and molecular structure also contributed to the development and validation of theoretical models of quantum chemistry. These 34
  • 35. models are now routinely used in the DoD to guide the synthesis of new compounds, such as energetic materials, and to predict the energy release in reactions, which are applied for use in modeling rocket plumes and signatures. AFOSR Funding Began: 1979 (Herschbach); 1981 (Polanyi); 1971 (Lee) 35
  • 36. Donald Cram (University of California, Los Angeles, CA) CHEMISTRY: 1987) Donald J. Cram was co-recipient of the 1987 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for "development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity." Cram is best known for his role in developing what is now known as host- guest chemistry. The work involves creating synthetic host molecules that mimic some of the actions enzymes perform in cells. Over a 30-year period, Cram and his colleagues designed and prepared more than 1,000 hosts, each with its own chemical and physical properties that would attract and bind specific guest molecules. He succeeded in synthesizing molecules that are able to behave like the molecules of living things, in that they "recognize" and attach themselves to specific atoms. The molecules Cram produced have many practical applications. They are used to control chemical reactions. They also are used in medicines, delivering active ingredients in controlled dosages long after the medicine has been taken. AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 36
  • 37. Melvin Schwartz: (Stanford University, Stanford, CA, and Digital Pathways International, Inc., Mountain View, CA) PHYSICS: 1988 Melvin Schwartz, Leon Lederman, and Jack Steinberger, shared the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics, “for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino.” The work carried out in concert by Schwartz, Lederman, and Steinberger during the 1960s came out of discussions at Columbia University regarding a need to find a feasible method of studying the effect of weak forces at high energy levels. It was Melvin Schwartz who suggested employing a beam of neutrinos for this purpose and work commenced to design a complimentary detector for measuring neutrino reactions. The team was successful in building a sophisticated detector which excluded unwanted particles from the neutrino beam. This first successful neutrino beam experiment has been used extensively for investigating the weak force and the quark structure of matter, as well as the neutrino itself. In the 1970s Dr. Schwartz went on to investigate state of the art approaches to the secure management of data communications. It was in this area that AFOSR issued several contracts to Dr. Schwartz to explore ways to ensure the integrity, viability, and increased capacity of Air Force telecommunications systems. AFOSR Funding Began: 1970 37
  • 38. Elias J. Corey (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) CHEMISTRY: 1990 Elias Corey received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, “for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis.” Thought by many to be one of the greatest living chemists, Cory is most famous for his seminal and overarching discoveries and development of theory in the field of organic synthesis—the construction of organic molecules via chemical processes. Corey’s Nobel Prize recognized his formal approach to synthesis design, based on retrosynthetic analysis, whereby the research is planned backwards from the product, using standardized rules and procedures. Corey’s retrosynthetic analysis begins with the planned structure of the hoped for molecule and an ensuing analysis of which bonds must be broken in turn— simplifying the structure in a formalized retrograde approach. Corey has developed several new synthetic reagents as well as numerous reactions which have become commonplace in the field. Corey’s frontier-breaking work has been fundamental to the direct or inferential advancement and facilitation of numerous Air Force requirements in flight medicine. AFOSR Funding Began: 1968 38
  • 39. Jerome Friedman (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA) Henry Kendall (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA) PHYSICS: 1990 Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall, and Richard Taylor (Stanford University), received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics, for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics.” This award recognized a significant breakthrough in our understanding of the basic structure of matter. In 1963, Friedman and Kendall joined forces with Taylor and others to conduct experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. This MIT/SLAC collaboration resulted in a series of measurements of inelastic electron scattering from the proton and the neutron which provided the first direct evidence of the internal quark sub-structure of the nucleon. The accelerator experiments proved that quarks formed the fundamental building blocks of protons and neutrons, and that there is a glue which binds the quarks together—gluons. These discoveries begot a new era in the history of physics. Among other contributions, AFOSR funding for Friedman and Kendall resulted in enhanced nuclear instrumentation and particle accelerator advances at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory. AFOSR Funding Began: 1961 (Friedman); 1961 (Kendall) 39
  • 40. Rudolph A. Marcus (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA) CHEMISTRY: 1992 Rudolph Marcus was the recipient of the 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems." Marcus is best known for his exceptional theoretical work on electron transfer and the fact that his efforts in this area have resulted in basic chemical theory of great practical consequence in the field. The Marcus Theory describes and makes predictions concerning photochemical production of fuel, chemiluminescence (cold light), the conductivity of electrically conducting polymers, corrosion, and many other chemical reactions. It was in the early 1960s that AFOSR funded Dr. Marcus when he was engaged in the research and publication of a series of papers on electron transfer reactions. His work led directly to the solution of the problem of greatly varying reaction rates. AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 40
  • 41. Mario Molina (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA) CHEMISTRY: 1995 Mario Molina, Paul Crutzen and Sherwood Rowland won the 1995 Chemistry prize for their "work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone." It was the first time a Nobel had been awarded to a Mexican American, and also the first time the Nobel Committee had recognized leaders in environmental science. These three chemists have all made pioneering contributions to explaining how ozone is formed and decomposes through chemical processes in the atmosphere. Molina presenting the first definitive demonstration that human actions can harm the environment on a global scale. In 1974, Molina hypothesized that chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, then a widely used ingredient of aerosol cans, air conditioners, and refrigerators, were depleting the ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone protects the planet from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Without it, plant and animal life as we know it could not exist on the planet, at least on land. Molina's initial work was greeted with skepticism, but by 1979 he had proven his theory, and alarmed by news of an "Achilles heel" in the atmosphere, the public demanded action. Manufacturers looked for alternatives to CFCs. This flurry of action, including a ban on CFCs as propellants in spray cans in the US, took place despite the fact that no one had observed any loss of stratospheric ozone. The discovery of the hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica in 1980 increased the sense of urgency that CFCs should be widely banned. In 1987, an international accord known as the Montreal Protocol was signed to phase out the use of CFCs in developed and developing countries. Molina went on to prove the connection between CFCs and the Antarctic ozone hole by proposing a new series of chemical reactions that was confirmed in 1991. Dr. Molina was funded by AFOSR as part of an effort to assess the impact of Air Force space launch operations on the environment. Molina investigated the potential catalytic activity of aluminum oxide particulates exhausted from solid rocket motors on atmospheric processes, including ozone depletion. AFOSR Funding Began: 1995 41
  • 42. Richard E. Smalley (Rice University) CHEMISTRY: 1996 Richard Smalley shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Robert F. Curl, Jr. (Rice University) and Sir Harold W. Kroto (University of Sussex, Brighton, U.K.) “…for their discovery of fullerenes.” Basically, what Smalley, Curl, and Kroto discovered in 1985 was that the element carbon could be made into new forms that can create enclosed shell designs, particularly in the shape of a ball—a European soccer (foot)ball. To be precise, this unique form was named the “buckminsterfullerene” after the American architect R. Buckminster Fuller and his geodetic dome design. These clusters that contained 60 carbon atoms resulted in a very stable molecular structure of great symmetry. Other carbon clusters were produced that contained additional carbon atoms also resulting in stable structures. These new fullerene carbon clusters not only produced unique properties, but opened up an entirely new branch of chemistry related to their production, manipulation, and application in the fields of astrochemistry, superconductivity and materials development. For example, three dimensional polymers and nanotubes—employed on a fullerene template—may greatly impact materials development. AFOSR first provided funding to Dr. Smalley in 1972 when he researched laser spectroscopy of supersonic molecular beams and its application to the nitrogen dioxide spectrum. Additional laser spectroscopy programs continued throughout the next decade and recent AFOSR support is dedicated to single wall nanotube growth research. AFOSR Funding Began: 1972 42
  • 43. Steven Chu (Stanford University, Stanford, CA) PHYSICS: 1997 Dr. Steven Chu shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1997 with two others for "development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light." Dr. Chu's method of cooling and trapping atoms with laser lights provides the foundation for atom interferometers, atom lasers and more precise frequency standards, such as the basis for atomic clocks. These clocks, used in space and earth navigation to pinpoint a position, are expected to result in a 1000-fold increase in accuracy. Physics is not the only area the improved time standard has generated a positive ripple effect. Other branches of science have been influenced by Dr. Chu's discoveries. They include: a new way of understanding polymer behavior (coatings, friction, injection molding); direct studies of biological interactions (DNA behavior, bacterial interactions); insight into novel forms of matter (Bose- Einstein condensation, atom interferometer); and a legacy of graduate students to enrich the U.S. talent pool. The Air Force benefit is significant thanks to Dr. Chu's work. Navigation and control systems, smaller electronic circuits with greater density, and covert and encrypted communications will witness marked improvements. AFOSR Funding Began: 1988 43
  • 44. Daniel Tsui (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ) PHYSICS: 1998 Dr. Daniel Tsui shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1998 for the "discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations." Dr. Tsui developed his award-winning idea during a long and productive career with Bell Labs. He then joined Princeton University where he used AFOSR sponsorship to forward extensions of that work. Tsui's efforts led to miniaturized, high-performance millimeter wave components that are used extensively in surveillance and communications systems. Tsui made refined studies of the quantum Hall effect using inversion layers in materials of ultra-high purity. Plateaus appeared in the Hall effect not only for magnetic fields corresponding to the filling of orbits with one, two, three, etc, electron charges, but also for fields corresponding to fractional charges. This could be understood only in terms of a new kind of quantum fluid, where the motion of independent electrons of charge e is replaced by excitations in a multi- particle system which behave (in a strong magnetic field) as if charges of The smaller, faster components expected to be developed from Dr. Tsui's breakthrough will play a key role in helping the Air Force to achieve its goal of reducing the weight and volume of electronic circuits by 75 to 80 percent early this century. AFOSR Funding Began: 1985 44
  • 45. Ahmed Zewail (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA) CHEMISTRY: 1999) Dr. Ahmed Zewail took home the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1999 for his "studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectrocopy." Dr. Zewail's pioneering research showed that it is possible, with rapid laser technique, to see how atoms in a molecule move during a chemical reaction. His insights have helped scientists understand how certain molecules are synthesized, how energy is released in reactions and how the outcome of chemical reactions might be controlled. Using these ultrafast lasers, Zewail was able to image chemical reactions as bonds form and break in real time, or at a scale of femtoseconds - a millionth of a billionth of a second. Dubbed "femtochemistry," it has allowed scientists to understand how and why certain chemical reactions take place but not others. Zewail's work also helped scientists explain why the speed and yield of reactions depend on temperatures. As a result, scientists the world over are studying processes with femtosecond spectrocopy in gases, in solids, in fluids, on surfaces and in polymers. The Air Force has benefited from Zewail's prize-winning work, focusing their applications on better understanding and controlling the release of energy in chemical reactions in systems, such as novel rocket propellants and the interactions of aerospace vehicles with their environments. AFOSR Funding Began: 1986 45
  • 46. Alan Heeger (University of California, Santa Barbara, CA) Alan G. MacDiarmid (University of Pennsylvania) CHEMISTRY: 2000 Dr. Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki Shirakawa (of the University of Tsukuba, Japan) jointly won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2000 for "the discovery and development of conductive polymers." Heeger’s research in the 1970s focused on conductive polymers. He and two associates found that a thin film of polyacetylene, when oxidized with iodine vapor, exhibited an electrical conductivity increase of a billion times; turning an insulator to a conductor. MacDiarmid’s 1970s research was also along the same line of effort. A 1972 AFOSR-sponsored research report by MacDiarmid concerned an even-electron paramagnetic silicon species which confirmed electron transfer. These discoveries led to a new field of carbon-based electronics that have wide application and benefit for the Air Force. This pioneering work pushed the field of polymer research from primarily addressing structural applications to other potential applications typically addressed by semiconducting materials. Scientists and engineers no longer speculate about "plastic airplanes" and "plastic engines." Today, "plastic electronics" and "plastic lasers" are targets of research supported by all the services and agencies within the Department of Defense. This Nobel winning research will also lead to an Air Force and commercial reality in the near future, as plastic display panels -- like those found in a variety of hand-held devices -- are developed. AFOSR Funding Began: 1988 (Heeger); 1970 (MacDiarmid) 46
  • 47. Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments, Dallas, TX) PHYSICS: 2000 Jack Kilby, an AFOSR-funded scientist, received half of the 2000 Nobel Prize for Physics for his part "in the invention of the integrated circuit,"-- the other half was shared with AFOSR-funded Dr. Herbert Kroemer and another physicist. There are few living men whose insights and professional accomplishments have changed the world. Jack Kilby is one of these men. His invention of the monolithic integrated circuit - the microchip – almost 50 years ago at Texas Instruments (TI), laid the conceptual and technical foundation for the entire field of modern microelectronics. It was this breakthrough that made possible the sophisticated high-speed computers and large-capacity semiconductor memories of today's information age. Kilby also was one of the first people to suggest that semiconductors could be developed for use in Air Force weapon systems. As a result, the first Minuteman II computer was successfully flight tested in May 1964. Early ballistic missile tests with Kilby's integrated circuits largely assured the acceptance of semiconductor technology for other military and commercial uses. AFOSR Funding Began: 1958 47
  • 48. Herbert Kroemer (University of California, Santa Barbara, CA) PHYSICS: 2000 Dr. Herbert Kroemer, an AFOSR-funded physicist, shared half of his 2000 Nobel Prize for Physics with another physicist - the other half going to AFOSR- funded scientist Professor Jack Kilby - for "developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed and opto-electronics." Kroemer was the first to propose the use of thin layers of semiconducting materials, known as heterostructures -- novel composites of two or more materials -- to develop the heterostructure transistor. Kroemer analyzed theoretically the mobility of electrons and holes in heterostructure junctions. His propositions led to the build up of transistors, later called HEMTs (high electron mobility transistors), which are very important in today's high-speed electronics. The new transistor, relying on these composites, made significant improvements over conventional transistors in current amplification and high-frequency applications. Kroemer and a colleague, working independently, went on to create the heterostructure laser, an innovation crucial to the development of fiber optic communications. Dr. Kroemer's revolutionary ideas marked the beginning of the era of modern optoelectronic devices that have affected the way the Air Force and the populace at-large interact, such as through radio link satellites, the Internet, mobile phones, CD players. AFOSR Funding Began: 1995 48
  • 49. Paul Greengard (Rockefeller University, New York, NY) Eric R. Kandel (National Center for Scientific Research, Paris (EOARD)) PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 2000 Dr. Paul Greengard and Eric R. Kandel shared the 2000 Nobel Prize for medicine with one other neuroscientist, Arvid Carlsson, for their discoveries regarding "signal transduction in the nervous system." Greengard's research, begun more than 30 years ago, demonstrated the means by which chemicals known as neurotransmitters carry signals between nerve cells. These findings have resulted in the understanding of how the brain processes function and in the development of new drugs. He has also demonstrated that many effects -- both therapeutic and toxic -- of several classes of common antipsychotic, hallucinogenic and antidepressant drugs can be explained in terms of distinct neurochemical actions which affect the transmission of nerve signals in the brain. Under AFOSR sponsorship, Greengard experimented with large nerve cells to understand the molecular activity of synapse transmission. Eric Kandel’s effort’s were supported early on by AFOSR through their foreign detachment, the European Office of Aerospace Research and Development. His 1964 paper, the Mechanism of Prolonged Heterosynaptic Facilitation, was early foundational research for follow on efforts in signal transduction. Greengard, Kandel and Carlsson developed a general model which provides a rational explanation, at the molecular and cellular levels, of the mechanism by which stimuli -- both electrical and chemical -- produce physiological responses in individual nerve cells. This knowledge has led to a better understanding of the brain's function in perception, cognition and action. In turn, this provides a solid scientific basis for designing equipment and jobs to match human capabilities and limitations. AFOSR Funding Began: 1963 (Kandel); 1984 (Greengard) 49
  • 50. Wolfgang Ketterle (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) PHYSICS: 2001 The 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded jointly to Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman "for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates". The Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) is a new form of matter. “Einstein predicted that if a gas of such atoms were cooled to a very low temperature all the atoms would suddenly gather in the lowest possible energy state [as when] drops of liquid form from a gas, hence the term condensation.” Cornell and Wieman produced such a condensate from rubidium atoms, while Ketterle, working independently, worked with sodium atoms. The sodium atom approach resulted in the production and manipulation of many more atoms than the rubidium approach. It is the manipulation of such atoms which is significant in that the process has revolutionary implications for employing such atoms in the fields of precise measurement and material structures at the nanotechnology level. Beginning in 1990 and later, AFOSR supported Ketterle’s work dealing directly with research that led to the Nobel award, for example: Atom Cooling by Time-Dependent Potentials, Trapping and Focusing Ground State Atoms with Static Fields and Evaporative Cooling of Sodium Atoms. AFOSR Funding Began: 1990 50
  • 51. Daniel Kahneman (Princeton University, Princeton, NJ) ECONOMICS: 2002 Daniel Kahneman received half of the 2002 Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2002 "for having integrated insights from psychological research into economic science, especially concerning human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty." In Dr. Kahneman’s case, AFOSR funding began in 1977 when the Life Sciences Directorate supported his ground-breaking work on human perception, attention, and decision-making. Along with psychologist Amos Twersky, Kahneman studied the determinants of human choice in risky situations. Kahneman and Twersky showed that a person’s decisions depend on how the decision problem is framed or described, and this dependence results in decisions that deviate in predictable ways from the rational choice strategy. This research directly supported one of the long-standing goals of the directorate for advancement in model perception and cognition for improved human performance. AFOSR Funding Began: 1977 51
  • 52. John B. Fenn (Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA) CHEMISTRY: 2002 Fenn shared one-half of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules” and “for the development of soft desorption ionization methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules.” Early AFOSR support for Dr. John Fenn concerned molecules seeded in atomic beams. AFOSR continued to support Fenn during the 1980s, while he was at Yale University, with several contracts dealing with molecular collision processes. These studies and other associated systems were then used to study fundamental chemical reaction dynamics, which ultimately resulted in the Nobel Prize for chemistry for Herschbach, Lee and Polanyi, in 1986. The 2002 Nobel Prize in chemistry for Fenn was for his work in electrospray mass spectroscopy that grew out of Fenn’s experience and expertise from his earlier molecular research. AFOSR Funding Began: 1975 52
  • 53. Paul C. Lauterbur (Johns Hopkins University) PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE: 2003 The 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded jointly to Paul C. Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield, “…for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging.” This Nobel was awarded for advancements by Lauterbur and Mansfield regarding key discoveries concerning the development of the technique to visualize different structures (organs) within the human body. These findings provided the basis for the development of magnetic resonance into a useful imaging method. It was Lauterbur who discovered the process to create two-dimensional images of structures that could not be visualized by other techniques discovered previous to this. In 1973, “…he described how addition of gradient magnets to the main magnet made it possible to visualize a cross section of tubes with ordinary water surrounded by heavy water. No other imaging method can differentiate between ordinary and heavy water.” Lauterbur’s work, when combined with Mansfield’s discoveries, led to a practical method of obtaining magnetic resonance images. Lauterbur received funding from AFOSR only a few short years after AFOSR was established. His research grant at that time related to the study of nuclear magnetic resonance exchange reactions. Today, the non-invasive and harmless MRI procedure is a common diagnostic tool used many millions of times per year. AFOSR Funding Began: 1956 53
  • 54. John L. Hall (University of Colorado, Boulder, CO) Roy J. Glauber (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) Theodor W. Hansch (Max-Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, Garching, Germany) PHYSICS: 2005 Roy Glauber was honored with one-half of the 2005 Nobel Physics Prize for “his contribution to the quantum theory of optical coherence.” John Hall shared one-half of the award with Theodor W. Hansch, “for their contributions to the development of laser precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique.” Hall, Glauber and Hansch’s scientific career’s dealt with the characteristics of light, or more specifically, the properties of light on a macroscopic level (Hall and Hansch) and on a microscopic level (Glauber). AFOSR funding for Glauber first began in 1962. In 1963 Glauber published a seminal work where he created a model for photodetection and explained the fundamental characteristics of different types of light. The work of Glauber and others in the field of quantum optics led to the formulation that certain states of light could not be described with classical wave theory. Glauber’s impact has been so significant in this area that coherent states of light are known as Glauber states. AFOSR supported Glauber’s quantum optics research throughout the 1960’s and 1970s. John Hall first received funding from AFOSR in 1990 for research of “Stabilized Single-Frequency Operation of Visible Diode Lasers, High-Resolution Spectroscopy, and Microwave-to-Visible Synthesis,” which, as with Glauber’s research, is directly related to the subsequent Nobel award. Hall’s research was supported consistently by AFOSR through the next fifteen years as he refined the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy which ultimately led to ever greater accuracy in defining the quantum structure of matter. A major focus of Hall’s career, has been getting the frequency of various kinds of lasers stabilized, or fixed, to a very high degree. In his Nobel Lecture, Hall gratefully acknowledged the support of AFOSR. 54
  • 55. Hansch was supported by AFOSR beginning in 1990 through his joint work with two American colleagues at Stanford University relating to the search for a new laser regime of short pulse generation. Glauber was responsible for the established of Quantum Optics, “…in which quantum theory encompasses the field of optics….explain[ing] the fundamental differences between hot sources of light such as light bulbs, with a mixture of frequencies and phases, and lasers which give a specific frequency and phase.” Hall, Glauber and Hansch contributed significantly to scientific research on a very broad scale as they have greatly enhanced the precision of time measurements. They did this by making it possible to measure frequencies with an accuracy of fifteen digits. “Lasers with extremely sharp colors can now be constructed, and with the frequency comb technique, precise readings can be made of light of all colors. This technique makes it possible to carry out studies of, for example, the stability of the constants of nature over time and to develop extremely accurate clocks and improved GPS technology.” AFOSR Funding Began: 1962 (Glauber); 1990 (Hall); 1990 (Hansch) 55
  • 56. Robert Grubbs (California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA) CHEMISTRY: 2005 Robert Grubbs shared the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Yves Chauvin and Richard Schrock, “for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis.” The word metathesis is from the Greek words meta (meaning change), and thesis (meaning position), or more simply, to change places. In the work performed by Grubbs, Chauvin and Schrock, the bonds between carbon atoms of organic molecules are broken and new pairings take place. But what makes this possible are the catalyst molecules which were developed by the three respective chemists. When this process is taken further, different parts of different molecules can be combined to create new molecules with new properties. Building on the previous research of Chauvin (who explained how metathesis works), and Schrock (who created the first useful organic synthesis catalysts), Grubbs achieved a breakthrough in 1992 with the first well-defined catalysts for practical laboratory application. This practical application has found very broad use in the chemical industry with the development of new plastics, herbicides, drugs, and synthetic pheromones, which are produced more efficiently, are simpler to use, and are more environmentally friendly. AFOSR funded Grubbs through a Multi-University Research Initiative (MURI) from 1987 through 2002 which centered on cyclohexadiene and dihydrocatechol polymerization. AFOSR Funding Began: 1987 56
  • 57. Thomas C. Schelling (University of Maryland, College Park, MD) ECONOMICS: 2005 Thomas Schelling shared the 2005 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel with Robert Aumann, “for having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game- theory analysis.” It was during the 1950s, in the midst of the Cold War, that Thomas Schelling began to apply game theory to the issues of global security and the arms race. In 1964, Dr. Schelling’s began receiving AFOSR funding, several years after the publication of his landmark book, The Strategy of Conflict. His game-theory research proposed the theory that in a conflict a party can strengthen its position by actually weakening or limiting its options. Dr. Schelling’s bold idea prompted new developments in game theory and eventual application in various methods throughout the social sciences. AFOSR funded an effort by Schelling in 1966 which resulted in a major scholarly study entitled, Strategic Analysis of Extra-Legal Internal Political Conflict, which was a theoretical study of the strategy employed by groups engaged in extra-legal conflict within states. As described by the Nobel awards committee: “Notably, his analysis of strategic commitments has explained a wide range of phenomena, from the competitive strategies of firms to the delegation of political decision power,” In concluding its award remarks, the committee praised Schelling for, “…having enhanced our understanding of conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis [and] his advancements have been proved to great relevance for conflict resolution and efforts to avoid war.” AFOSR Funding Began: 1960 57
  • 58. George F. Smoot (University of California, Berkeley, CA) PHYSICS: 2006 George F. Smoot shared the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics with John C. Mather “for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.” This Nobel award in Physics is based on work which the two laureates did to gain a more precise understanding of the origins of galaxies and stars. The foundation of their work was provided by measurements derived from the COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite launched by NASA in 1989. The goal was to utilize the COBE measurements to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation of the universe, which ultimately provided increased support for the Big Bang theory of the origins of the universe, as opposed to the steady state theory. Additionally, the in depth study of the COBE measurements marked the beginning of cosmology as a precise science. Smoot had the responsibility of measuring the very slight variations in the temperature of the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the initial big bang origin of the universe. The form of this radiation, and its various temperatures across respective wavelengths, resulted in a specific shape across the entire spectrum whose form is known as blackbody radiation. Smoot’s task of calculating the small variations in temperature across the blackbody in various directions is termed anisotropy. AFOSR first funded Smoot’s work in 1980 in direct support of anisotropic techniques, which can be applied to space-based surveillance requirements. AFOSR Funding Began: 1980 58
  • 59. Yoichiro Nambu (University of Chicago) PHYSICS: 2008 Yoichiro Nambu shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics with two Japanese physicists Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Masskawa. Nambu was awarded one-half of the Physics prize “for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics.” This Nobel award in Physics is based on work which Nambu did in the 1960s and early 1970s under grants from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and other funding agencies. According to the official Nobel Museum press release, it was as early as 1960 when Dr. Nambu “formulated his mathematical description of spontaneous broken symmetry in elementary particle physics. Spontaneous broken symmetry conceals nature’s order under an apparently jumbled surface. It has proved to be extremely useful, and Nambu’s theories permeate the Standard Model of elementary particle physics. The Model unifies the smallest building blocks of all matter and three of nature’s four forces in one single theory.” Dr. Nambu’s groundbreaking work is of significant importance with relation to CERN’s particle accelerator as its capabilities are fully realized. Dr. Nambu’s work epitomizes the high risk, long term approach to AFOSR funding, as well as highlighting the fact that AFOSR’s program managers have a proven track record of supporting future world class talent early on in their careers. AFOSR Funding Began: 1965 59
  • 60. Andre Geim (University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom) Konstantin Novoselov (University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom) Physics: 2010 The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 was awarded jointly to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov "for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two- dimensional material graphene." In 2004, Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov of the University of Manchester, isolated graphene, a single atomic layer of carbon from graphite. It is an ancient material, but at the same time, completely new because this thinnest ever material has turned out to be quite amazing. Graphene has remarkable qualities: besides being the thinnest material imaginable, it is stronger than steel and far better than copper at conducting current; and for being almost transparent, it is so dense that not even a helium atom can pass through it. This two dimensional material opens up a new world of materials and applications: faster and more efficient graphene transistors and touch screens will make for more robust and lightweight electronics, and new material applications can take advantage of the thin, elastic and lightweight features of this novel material for a wide variety of plastic/composite material applications. In 2008 AFOSR's European Office of Aerospace Research and Development (EOARD) initiated grants with Dr. Geim's group to explore the electronic properties of the material. Follow-on grants have led to visits between the Manchester team and AFRL researchers, as well as exchanges of samples and data. DoD is showing strong and robust interest in seeing what flat carbon can achieve, and EOARD provided the critical link to the inventors of this revolutionary material. AFOSR Funding Began: 2008 60
  • 61. Dan Shechtman (Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel) CHEMISTRY: 2011 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2011 was awarded to Dan Shechtman "for the discovery of quasicrystals". In 1982 Dr. Dan Shechtman observed a crystal image in his electron microscope which, theoretically, could not exist—regular crystal patterns that never repeat themselves. This configuration of “quasicrystals” was considered impossible because it was accepted that atoms within crystals formed repeating symmetrical patterns; it was accepted truth that this was simply how a crystal was formed. As such, Dr. Shechtman had to battle against longstanding conventional wisdom, but in the end, his efforts fundamentally altered how chemists conceive of solid matter. For comparative purposes, aperiodic mosaics have helped scientists understand what quasicrystals look like at the atomic level: the patterns are regular - they follow mathematical rules - but they never repeat themselves. The basis for this design is the golden ratio, used extensively in mathematics and the arts, whereby two quantities are in the golden ratio if the ratio of the sum of the quantities to the larger quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller one. In quasicrystals, the ratio of various distances between atoms is related to the golden mean. This construct was ultimately identified in nature and found to contribute exceptional strength within various materials. It was in 1999 that AFOSR funded Dr. Shechtman to explore ways in which his quasicrystals could be employed as protective coatings. AFOSR Funding Began: 1999 61