INGLES COMERCIAL - CREDIT 2 MANUAL - FP A DISTANCIA ANDALUCIA - GRADO SUPERIOR GESTION COMERCIAL Y MARKETING

Santillanaformación
INGLÉS COMERCIAL II
GESTIÓN COMERCIAL Y MÁRKETING

Inglés comercial II
INDEX
1. Getting in touch
• Keep in touch..................................................................................................3
• First grade conditional....................................................................................7
• Make and Do .................................................................................................9
• Franchising...................................................................................................13
• Necessity of an advice..................................................................................14
• Offers, suggestions, invitations.....................................................................18
2. Going into the Stock Exchange
• Uniform, constant, equable...........................................................................21
• Environment ethic ........................................................................................23
• World markets .............................................................................................26
• Business ethic..............................................................................................28
• Yard sales ...................................................................................................31
• Recycling.....................................................................................................33
3. Being impersonal
• How things are made...................................................................................36
• The Agent (Passive) ...................................................................................38
• Doing a market research ..........................................................................42
• Alliances......................................................................................................43
• Phrasal verbs...............................................................................................46
4. Writing in/ for business
• Negotiations.................................................................................................51
• Information checkers .................................................................................54
• How to sell a product ..................................................................................57
• Commercial letters......................................................................................60
• The language of complaints .......................................................................62
• Letters of reply and adjustment .................................................................66
5. Going on holiday
• Enquires and replies...................................................................................70
• Electronic correspondence.........................................................................72
• Banks and money.......................................................................................75
• How to place and order ..............................................................................78
• Energy.........................................................................................................81
• Reports........................................................................................................84
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Inglés comercial II
1 Getting in touch
Keep in touch
Two of the most popular web sites in the world are “Classmates” and “ Friends
Reunited ” which offers the same service, they enable people to get back in touch
with friends who went to the school with them.
Today “ Classmates ”, which was founded by Michael Schutzler in 1995, has over
35 million members in the United States where it has grown rapidly. The site, which
provides listing for most public and private schools, and universities, is visited by
people worldwide.
Users, who can register for free by providing their name, name of the school they
attended, graduating years, and contact information, can view the names of who
have also registered with “Classmates”. Only when a user wants to contact
someone, they pay a subscription fee.
Four years after, a husband and wife decided to start a similar service in Britain
where they launched “Friends Reunited”. They ran the original operation from a
spare room in their house. Today it is one of the best known and most popular
sites in Britain whose 86 million registered members come from nine different
countries.
However, it has received some criticism and been accused of causing several
divorces, as some users have used the site to say bad things about their ex-
teachers, while others have made contact with teenage sweethearts and left their
partners.
GRAMMAR POINT
Look at these expressions from the text:
… which offer the same service.
… which was founded by Michael Schutzler in 1995.
… which provides listing for most public and private schools and universities.
… who went to the school with them.
… who can register for free….
… Where it has grown rapidly.
… Where they launched friends Reunited.
… The names of whom have also registered with classmates.
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… Whose 8.6 million registered members come from nine different countries.
They are all relative clauses, short phrases beginning with words like “who”,
“that”, “which”… (called relative pronouns) that define or describe people and
things. They follow a noun (grammatically called antecedent) about which they add
some sort of information.
Relative clauses are often used in both spoken and written English. There is a
tendency to use non-defining relative clauses mostly in written, rather than in
spoken English.
We use relative clauses to provide extra information. This information can either
define something (defining clause), or provide unnecessary, but interesting, added
information (non-defining clause).
There are two types of relative clauses:
• Defining relative clauses: we use them to identify exactly which person or
thing we mean. The information provided in a defining relative clause is
crucial in understanding the meaning of the sentence.
They enable people to get back in touch with friends who went to the school
with them.
The purpose of a defining relative clause is to clearly define who or what we
are talking about. Without this information, it would be difficult to know who
or what is meant.
We are not talking about any friends, but only about those whom we met at
school and have not seen for years.
• Non- defining relative clauses: give extra information which is not
necessary for the sentence to make sense. In writing, they go between
commas.
Users, who can register for free, can view the names of Classmate's
members.
Correct punctuation is essential in non-defining relative clauses.
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INGLÉS COMERCIAL II GETTING IN TOUCH
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Relative pronouns in non-defining relative
clauses
Person Object
Subject who which
Object who, whom which
Possessive whose
whose,of
which
If the non-defining relative clause occurs in the middle of a sentence, a
comma is put before the relative pronoun and at the end of the clause.
If the non-defining relative clause occurs at the end of a sentence, a comma
is put before the relative pronoun.
Relative clauses can be introduced by:
• A relative pronoun: who (whom), which, that, whose.
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Person Object
Subject who that which, that
Object
Ø, that, who,
whom
Ø, which, that
Possessive whose whose, of which
Relative pronouns in defining relative
clauses

Relative pronouns
Which: refer to things.
That: refers to things and people. It is more common, especially in speech.
Who/Whom: refer to people.
In formal speech and writing we can use “whom” instead of “who”, when
“who” is not the subject but the object of a sentence, and after a preposition.
However, this is becoming less common and in modern English speakers
rarely use “whom” they prefer “who” with the preposition at the end of the
phrase or “that”.
They can view the names of whom have also registered.
Whose: shows that something belongs to someone. It can be translated by:
“cuyo/a, cuyos/as”.
Friends Reunited whose 8.6 million people come from 9 different countries.
Where: can be a relative pronoun when its antecedent is a noun indicating
place:
Britain where they launched a similar service…
When: can also be a relative pronoun when its antecedent is a noun
indicating time:
The day when she came was the best in our lives.
• No relative pronoun, Ø.
• Where, why and when instead of a relative pronoun.
When, where and why
Where, referring to a place, why, referring to a reason, and when, referring
to a time, can be used instead of a relative pronoun after a noun.
In defining relative clauses why and when, unlike where can be omitted.
When, where and why are not omitted in non-defining relative clauses.
It is preferable to use that (not which ) after the following words: all, any
(thing), every (thing), few, little, many, much, no (thing), none, some(thing),
and after superlatives.
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When using the pronoun to refer to the object, that can be omitted.
Leave out the relative pronoun
Sometimes we can leave out the relative pronoun:
• In a defining relative clause that refers to the object.
The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry
(The doctor whom I spoke to …).
• After a superlative.
That was the best film I've ever seen!
(… the best film that I've ever seen).
But we cannot leave out the pronoun:
• In a defining relative clause that refers to the subject.
The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.
• In non-defining relative clauses:
Cervantes, who died long ago, is still the best Spanish writer.
First grade conditional
Read the text. It contains a description of a computer game.
“A virus tries to destroy your computer. Luckily, your computer has an antivirus
protection system. But can it stop the virus before it totally destroys the
computer? Two players or teams can play the game. One team is the virus and
the other team is the antivirus! Both need different coloured pens.
If your team is the virus, then your objective is to destroy as much of the
computer system as you can.
If you team is the antivirus, your objective is to save as much of the computer
system as possible.
You take turns moving on the playing board. You can move only a shape at a
time and always to shapes connected by a line. All shapes contain questions or
answers to the questions.
If you land on a shape with an answer, or if you land on a shape that has already
been coloured, you have to wait for your next turn to move again. If you land on a
shape with a question you must search the other shapes for the correct answer to
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the question. You have a maximum of 30 seconds to match the question and
answer.
If you correctly match the question and answer then you can colour both shapes
with your colour and move to the answer shape. If you do not manage to match
them correctly you will have to return to the shape you occupied previously.
When all the shapes are coloured, the virus and antivirus teams should count
how many shapes they matched right. The winner is the team that has the most
coloured shapes: virus/antivirus”.
GRAMMAR POINT
We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or
situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility
that this condition will happen.
IF condition result
Present Simple will + base verb
When reading this text about a board game you can see many sentences with
“if”, they are called conditionals. The “if…” clause is the condition and the other
part of the sentence is the result.
People sometimes call conditionals "IF" structures or sentences, because there
is usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence.
The important thing about the first conditional is that there is a real possibility
that the condition will happen.
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When the verb of the condition is a Present Simple the verb of the result can be:
• A present too. It expresses a general truth.
If your team is the virus your objective is to destroy the computer system.
Sometimes it is called a zero conditional because it expresses more a
cause/effect relation than a condition. We can also use “when” to introduce the
sentence.
Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will , for example: If you are
good today, you can watch TV tonight.
• A modal auxiliary, adds a sense of necessity, obligation, possibility… to the
result.
If you land on a coloured shape you have to wait.
• A simple future (will). It describes events that will happen or are likely to
happen, a real possibility in the speaker's mind.
If you don't manage to match them correctly you will return to your previous
place .
• An imperative, it tells you what to do.
If you are a virus, attack the computer system.
Make and Do
Look at these advertisements:
“For your convenience we've printed an information leaflet about our company
telling you what we do, who we are and how we do it.
Thank you for your support and for making us the U.K. 's most successful retailer.
In order to maintain our number one position we need to know where we've gone
wrong.
Suggestions and comments can be made to the customer service. They will
receive a reply. Please, let us know your opinion about us. We really care !”
We made profits of more than 500.000 dollars and suppliers are keen to do
business with us”.
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GRAMMAR POINT
When dealing with the verbs “make” and “do”, problems may arise, because
they are very similar in meaning and it is not always easy to know which one we
should use.
Make. It often has the meaning of “create” or “construct”, as in the example from
the text:
We made profits…
or: We made a new design for the product.
The company makes photographic equipment.
Make is often used with nouns connected with talking and sounds; as we can
see in these examples:
Children make a lot of noise.
I'd like to make a suggestion.
You can write to our customer service to make a complaint.
Make can also be found in expressions related with travelling such as:
Make a journey or make a visit.
However, there are many other expressions which do not follow these guidelines
and it is best to learn them or use a dictionary if you are unsure.
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Expressions with Do and Make
Do Make
do good make an attempt
do harm
make a bed (usually this means "tidy
the bedclothes" but it could mean
"manufacture the furniture")
do well make a change/changes
do badly make a complaint
do a favor make a decision
do business make a demand
make an effort
make an exception
make an excuse
make a loss
make love
make a mistake
make money
make a noise
make an offer
make peace
make a phone call
make a profit
make a suggestion
make war
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Here are some of them:
an appointment make sense
arrangements make certain
an attempt
a choice
money
progress
a start
Make
my/your-mind up
Do is often used when talking about an activity without mentioning exactly what
it is, as in the sentences:
What do you do?
I do my homework everyday.
Women do most of the housework in Western countries.
He is doing a master in Business.
Also it is used when we talk about a work or a task. And in the structure:
do + ing
It was a pleasure doing business with you.
Could you do some photocopying for me, please?
Remember that we usually use make for products or goods that are manufactured.
That's why you see labels like "Made in Hong Kong" or "Made in the USA " on
products that you buy.
As in the case of make, do is used in many other expressions without following
these rules, as we can see in these examples:
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good
harm
my/your/his/her… best
someone a favour
Do
well
Franchising
Today businesses are changing and one of the most outstanding features is the
closing of traditional shops in favour of big chains that offer their products
everywhere in outlets that look alike. That's what we call franchising.
But there is more, it can be defined as a business system in which a company, the
franchisor, sells an individual the right to operate a business using the franchisor's
format. The franchisee has the right to take advantage of the franchisor's brand
names, reputation and experience.
As part of the agreement or contract, the franchisee pays an initial sum called
franchise or front end fee, and it agrees to pay a management services fee, which
is usually calculated as a percentage of the annual turnover. Some franchisors
require their franchisees to pay and advertisement fee to contribute to the annual
advertising and marketing costs but not all of them.
Ben and Larry
Ben and Larry is an American company, based in Vermont which makes natural
ice-cream. It was founded in 19789 by Ben Hogen and Larry Greenfield. It
distributes its products in all the states and has 100 independent franchise shops in
U.S.A. and Canada.
The franchisees buy a ten year license and they receive personnel training and a
well-planned marketing campaign. Most of their franchisees are experienced
operators whose stores are their primary source of income. As part of their
publicity, shops have to participate in many local events and social campaigns
such as: aiding homeless shelters, sponsoring cultural activities….
The franchisee has to put up the necessary capital to open the business and
outlets. Quite a big investment if we remember that, decoration and personnel
training had to fit all the franchisor's requirements and they are usually expensive.
As a counterpart the franchisee receives an operations manual containing all the
information required in order to manage the business.
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What are the advantages of this system? Why would it be necessary to pay in
order to run your own business?
What are the advantages for a big company? Well, if we take into account that
cultures remain different although boundaries may have been removed, you'll have
to understand local culture before setting your business up, which makes
franchising to local businessmen the best way to expand for a foreign company.
However, not everything is wonderful, there are some disadvantages, the
franchisor, who owns the outlet and has to give a big sum of money to get started,
may not be as successful as expected; nevertheless, he or she would still have to
pay the franchisor what they have agreed upon. He will be tied up by a contract for
a fixed time and the chances of cancelling the contract might be none.
Necessity of an advice
When we want to express an obligation, or a necessity we use must or have to.
Some people worry about the difference between them, which, in fact, is very
small.
Have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of have to is obliged or
forced to act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or school rules).
Have to is objective.
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There are a number of formulas used when giving advice in English.
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GINGLÉS COMERCIAL II GETTING IN TOUCH
Índice
Formula + Verb Form
I don't think you should work so
hard.
Use “I don't think
you should” + the
base form of the
verb in a statement.
You ought to work less.
Use “You ought to”
+ the base form of
the verb in a
statement.
You ought not to work so hard.
Use “You ought not
to” + the base form
of the verb in a
statement.
If I were you,
If I were in your position,
If I were in your shoes, I wouldn't
work so hard.
Use “If I were” +
“you”
“in your position”
“your shoes” + “I
wouldn't”
“I would” + base
form of the verb in a
statement (A form of
the conditional 2).
You had better work less.
Use “You had
better” (you'd better)
+ the base form of
the verb in a
statement.
You shouldn't or You should
work less.
Use “You should”
“You shouldn't” + the
base form of the
verb in a statement.
Whatever you do, don't work so
hard.
Use “Whatever you
do” + the imperative.
Formulas used when giving advice

Have to: is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, but in fact it
is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the have to structure, "have"
is a main verb. The structure is:
Subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with to )
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The strcture is:
Subject + must + main verb
Like all auxiliary verbs, must can not be followed by to. In general, must express
personal obligation. Must expresses what the speaker thinks is necessary. Must is
subjective.
It is sometimes possible to use must for real obligation, for example a rule or a law.
But generally, we use have to for this.
Look at these two sentences:
We have to make a decision.
I must ring home. I'm going to be late.
With have to the necessity is external; therefore in sentence one, we understand
that the decision has to be made because business needs so.
On sentence number two is the speaker's decision, thus we can say that “must” is
used when the necessity is internal.
With future necessity we use will have to and must. Which are perfectly
equivalent? Look at these two sentences:
I'll have to attend the meeting next Monday.
I must attend the meeting next Monday.
There is no difference in meaning, so that using one or the other is only a question
of style or just the speaker's preference.
Where there is a big difference is in the negative form of both verbs:
• When we use mustn't we mean that something is not allowed. But,
• When we use don't / doesn't have to we mean that something is not
necessary.
Read this text to appreciate the difference:
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“When operating the computer you mustn't switch it off without saving your data,
but you don't have to unplug the equipment, you only have to disconnect the
system from your software program”.
• To express negative necessity we can also use can't which also means
prohibition, as it is shown in the example:
You can't open the shop tomorrow, It's a public holiday.
• Can, in the affirmative is also used to express possibility.
Read this text to check how these modal auxiliaries work together:
“Miss. Robinson is a personnel manager at a big American company. She is also
the mother of three young children. She is very happy with her job conditions
because she has to work only four days a week.
She can also bring her children to work because the company has childcare
facilities. Obviously, she can't see them during the day because she is too busy.
But she doesn't have to work at weekends and this makes family life much easier
for her. She believes that she must do her job better than the men around her to be
accepted as a woman in a man's world. Her advice to working women: you mustn't
be too nice”.
• When we want to give advice we can also use should and ought to, look at
these examples:
You should keep an account of all your expenses.
You ought to retire if you don't feel well.
However, when used in the negative form, these two auxiliaries express some sort
or criticism.
You shouldn't have sold those shares, they are rising.
You oughtn't to have cancelled that meeting; the customer is very upset for the
delay.
As you can see from the examples, the structure for criticism is:
Should (not) + have + Past Participle
Ought (not) to + have + Past Participle
Sometimes they can express criticism in the affirmative:
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You ought to have applied earlier, now it's too late.
Offers, suggestions, invitations
In business situations we need to be very careful when giving an opinion. If we
sound too direct, we will be considered aggressive and bossy and no matter how
good our idea might be, nobody will pay attention to us.
Very few people are in a position where they can say openly what they want and
make others do it, so learning to suggest and recommend politely is being a step
ahead in business.
There are a number of formulas used when making suggestions in English. Here
are some of the most common.
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Formula + Verb Form
Why don't you / we go to a
movie?
Use the base form of
the verb in a
question.
We / You could go to a movie.
the verb in a
statement.
Let's go to a movie.
the verb with let's.
What about going to a movie?
Use the -ing form of
the verb in a
question.
How about going to a movie?
Use the -ing form of
the verb in a
question.
I suggest you / we go to a
movie.
Use suggest + object
+ verb in the base
form in a statement.
Formulas used when making suggestions

We can use should when we have a strong opinion about something or when we
are recommending some sort of action.
In the negative form we do not use shouldn't but I don't think we should. Which, is
not as direct.
Look at these examples:
We should import goods from exotic Asian countries.
I don't think we should sell our goods at very high prices.
However if you want to make a less strong suggestion, you can use these
expressions:
• Why don't…
• How about + -ing verb
• What about + -ing verb
Why don't we make an appointment with the bank manager?
How about playing classical music in our stores?
What about importing merchandise from China ?
Other possible expressions are:
• We could / I suppose we could.
• Have you thought about…?
• Let's…
• What do you think about…?
• What I have in mind is…
When we offer to do something for someone, we can use shall I in this case, an
answer from the other person is required. But if we do not require an answer, then
we can use I will.
Look these examples:
My car doesn't work! I'll go and check it.
Shall I go check it?
In these cases we are waiting for the owner's permission.
• Would you like…? Is also a good way to offer help.
Would you like me to open the window?
• Do you mind if I / we …? / would you mind…? With these sentences we are
asking permission for doing something for us or for another person. Although
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you may think that it is not necessary to ask, in some situations you'd be
surprised.
Look at this text:
“Last winter I was sitting on the bus, on my way home after a long day, although I
was very tired, I'm an old fashioned, well-educated gentleman; so when I realized
that a middle-aged lady was standing and had some difficulty to keep her balance,
I told her: would you like to sit down madam? To my surprise she replied: “Do you
think I am so old I can stand on my feet?”
Now, when I offer my help I'm very careful and ask: Do you mind if I leave you my
seat?
Some people are very particular about accepting any help from strangers”.
Offers, suggestions, invitations
Giving Opinions
I'm positive that...
I (really) feel that...
In my opinion...
The way I see things...
If you ask me,... I tend to think that...
Asking for Opinions
Are you positive that...
Do you (really) think that...
(Name of participant) can we get your input?
How do you feel about...?
Advising and Suggesting
Let's...
We should...
Why don't you....
How / What about...
I suggest / recommend that...
Correcting Information
Sorry, I think you misunderstood what I said.
Sorry, that's not quite right.
I'm afraid you don't understand what I'm saying.
That's not quite what I had in mind.
That's not what I meant.
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2 Going into the Stock Exchange
Uniform, constant, equable
New companies are formed every day. One option to enlarge a small company is
to ask for a loan to a bank.
This often brings problems to the company's owner because he or she will have to
pay an amount of money (the interest rate) monthly during a long period of time; if
the business is not fully successful and the loan is not paid, the bank can seize the
business in order to recover its loan.
Small companies are usually owned by one or two people, or families, and getting
the capital needed for expansion can be a real trouble.
When you want to raise capital to start a business you should be prepared for
some tough questions from your bank manager. Before agreeing a loan, a bank
will want to see your financial commitment to the success of your business.
Probably if you were in the bank manager's position you would act in the same
way. Don't forget that money comes from small investors who shouldn't like to lose
it. They would also want some kind of security like your car or house, or a person
who would back you, in that way, if things went wrong you could find yourself, or
someone you appreciate, out in the street.
And if the business failed the bank would be the first of a big group of creditors to
get its money back. Besides if you were declared bankrupt it would be difficult to
secure any further loans, and you must bear in mind that once a bank has made a
decision to get its money back, nothing is going to make them change their mind.
GRAMMAR POINT
The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are thinking about a
particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But we use the
second conditional to talk about something which we think is unlikely to happen
or to refer to an imaginary situation.
We use the Past Simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use would +
base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second
conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.
We call second conditional to a sentence formed by two parts, one is a condition
and the other is the result.
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Look at these examples from the text:
If the business failed, the bank would be the first of a big group of creditors to
get its money back.
If things went wrong you could find yourself… out in the street.
If you were in the bank manager's position you would act in the same way.
Note that we use a Past Simple tense in the If clause and would + infinitive
(without “to”) in the main clause in the first sentence, while we use could + base
infinitive in second one.
If clause pattern
If clause / Past Simple Result clause.
Modals add a sense of possibility; probability or advice to these sentences.
Would + base verb
Should
Could
verb
Might
+ base
Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of would, for example: If I won a
million dollars, I could stop working.
In many occasions we can use a second conditional to appear more polite in
making a request or asking a favour:
I would prefer it if you finished your report today.
Would you mind if I paid you next month?
We would be very grateful if you could send us some information.
When the verb “to be” is used in an If clause, we can use were instead of was,
especially after “I” as in this example:
If I weren't so tired, I would gladly help you.
We often use the expression “If I were you….” for giving someone advice:
If I were you I would pay the loan punctually.
Although “If” is the most common conjunction used in these sentences, it is not the
only one. We can also use:
Whether: its meaning is the same that the meaning of “If”.
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INGLÉS COMERCIAL II GOING INTO THE STOCK EXCHANGE
Índice

Unless: it is more used in first conditional sentences. It has de idea of “If not” or
“except”.
Unless he had the money, he would have to sell his house.
Note that the order of the two parts of a conditional sentence can be interchanged
without affecting the general sense of the sentence; however the verbal tenses
have to follow the pattern as explained.
Environment ethic
In recent years, some consumers' associations and environmental groups such as
Greenpeace and others, are trying to force industries to control the waste they
generate in their production processes. Their final goal is to improve the quality of
the atmosphere and the water and try to recover the ozone layer which has
suffered an important damage due to the CFCs used in industry.
Dangerous emissions to the air are now being controlled in most developed
countries and governments are helping underdeveloped countries to grow
industrially without using these components.
Many companies and corporations started harassing these organizations and
fought against them, violently sometimes, but nowadays, most people are aware of
the danger that wild industrial behaviour represents for the survival of our planet.
Scientists have joined the environmentalists in their demands, warning us about
the global warming and its effects on the weather. At the beginning, all this
sounded like science fiction, but even the most sceptics are now convinced of the
truth that lies in these theories.
GRAMMAR POINT
The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third
conditional we talk about the past.
We use the Past Perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We
use would have + Past Participle to talk about the impossible past result. The
important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result
are impossible now.
Third conditional expresses a condition which can never occur because it refers
to past or imaginary situations.
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With third conditions the speaker recognises that the consequence is
impossible. It cannot be fulfilled as the condition never happened.
We usually use it when talking about hypothetical situations and their
consequences. We can also use it to express regrets, wishes and missed
opportunities.
Third conditional used
Read this text and notice how third conditionals are used:
“One of the problems that sometimes companies have to deal with is how to
handle negative publicity when things go wrong. For example if they had
accidentally contaminated their own products during the manufacturing process,
they would have to recall their products and make sure they were withdrawn from
the shops.
However, products can also be victims of product tampering where unknown
people or members of the public damage them in some way and then, them make
false claims or blackmail the brand or the store.
A sad fact is that when such accusations are reported, they often provoke a
copycat behaviour. Something of that sort happened to “Tylenol” in the 80s.
Someone changed part of the contents of several boxes by poisonous pills. Many
people who only suffered from a common head ache were very ill. If the
pharmaceutical company hadn't retired the product from the shelves, some people
would have died. In addition, if they hadn't paid an enormous amount of money to
stop the tampering, it could have gone on forever.
Some months after this episode took place, the police arrested a former worker
who had been sacked. He told the media that nobody would have suffered if the
company had not made him redundant; and would have readmitted him when he
complained to them”.
As you can see from the examples in the text:
If the pharmaceutical company hadn't retired the product from the shelves some
people would have died.
If they hadn't paid an enormous amount of money… it could have gone on for ever.
Nobody would have suffered if the company had not made him redundant and they
would have readmitted him.
The If clause is in Past Perfect, and the result or main clause, in Perfect
Conditional: (would have + Past Participle).
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IF CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
Perfect Conditional
Would have + Past Participle
Should have + Past Participle
Could have + Past Participle
Past Perfect =
Had + Past
Participle
Might have + Past Participle
In the second sentence we can see that the use of “could” instead of “would” adds
the sentence the meaning of future possibility.
Sometimes, we use should have, could have, and might have instead of would
have, for example: If you had bought a lottery ticket, you might have won.
Inverted constructions are widely used in formal written documents such as legal
contracts, insurance, or agreements.
Has the customer refused to accept the goods, we would have terminated the
contract.
In these constructions the conjunction is left out and the past of have “had” is
placed in front of the subject as if it was a question. This use is very formal, and it
does not appear in spoken language.
Expressions that can introduce a conditional phrase
Besides “If”, the following expressions can also introduce conditional phrases or
clauses, although they are less frequent:
• Provided that / Providing that…
• On condition that…
• So long as….
• In case.
• In the case of.
• In the event that…
• In the event of….
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Conditional resume
Probability Conditional Example Time
100% Zero conditional If you heat ice, it melts. any time
50% First conditional If it rains, I will stay at home. future
10% Second conditional
If I won the lottery, I would
buy a car.
future
0% Third conditional
If I had won the lottery, I
would have bought a car.
past
World markets
Big companies may want to become even bigger by many different reasons; as
they are owned, not by one single individual, but by many people, the best option
to increase their capital is to offer shares of their businesses to new owners that
will bring the required capital with them, and thus they will become a part of the
company.
These companies buy others to form a big organization which is subdivided into
different firms and aim to different target markets. When they operate worldwide
they are called multinationals.
One of the most important parts of the world trade is the shares and stock market.
The vocabulary used in this sector is very specific and needs to be learnt carefully
in order to understand the economy pages of any newspaper.
When a company needs to raise money in order to grow, it can choose to issue
shares (parts of its capital) which can be bought by the general public. They are
called equities or ordinary shares.
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NASDAQ 1943.57 10.60 0.55%
DJIA 9854.85 -32.08 0.32%
S&P 500 1099.49 -4.17 0.38%
NASDAQ-100 1464.19 11.93 0.82%
NASDAQ-100
PMI
1460.62 8.36 0.58%
NASDAQ-100
AHI
1457.24 4.98 0.34%
Russell 1000 588.43 -1.83 0.31%
Russell 2000 572.18 2.05 0.36
When you buy them, you become a shareholder and own a part of that company,
you can then, make or lose money depending on the company's profits. If the
company makes profits it pays a sum of money per share known as dividend to its
shareholders.
Companies can also borrow money from a bank or from the general public issuing
bonds which are loans at a fixed interest to be paid each year.
In addition to these shares, loans issued by the government to build roads,
hospitals, etc., are called government stocks of gilt-edged securities. They are
also traded in the Stock Exchange.
Every day the press gives prices and other information about shares of the
companies authorised to use the Stock Exchange.
Some shares are grouped depending on the type of company to form an index:
Dow Jones, Nikkei, Blue chip… which shows the average benefit or loss of these
shares in the Market.
THE STOCK EXCHANGE
Stockbrokers are the people who buy and sell these shares for the general
public, and they charge their customers a commission. All developed countries
have Stock Exchange Markets; the most famous are Wall Street, (at New York),
London or Tokyo.
When describing the profits or losses of a company and its shares value, we
must know some expressions:
• When shares are gaining value we can say
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-Shares lifted to the top.
-Shares climbed…
-Shares gained…
-Shares fared well rising a _____ per cent.
-Shares went up by a….
-Shares boosted.
-They had strong / high / heavy earnings.
-They expand / shares are in expansion / they clock up fresh gains.
• When they are losing value we can say
-Shares crashed.
-Shares went down.
-Shares plunged.
-Shares deepened.
-Shares devaluated.
-They declined.
-Shares are losing steam.
-Shares clocked up lose.
When the market gains steadily, it is called Bull market when it loses it is called
Bear market.
As positive words we have: golden age, bright spot, and growth.
As negative words we have: recession slump, dark age, rainy days.
Some adjectives and adverbs are frequently used with these expressions, such
as: dramatically, steeply, steady.
Business ethic
One of the most important vindications of international organizations such as
UNICEF or Save the Children is that children labour should be forbidden or at least
restricted by laws which force big companies and local manufactures not to employ
them.
However, in poor countries, children's salaries are necessary for the families'
survival, so governments have to rule the conditions of that labour force and
protect them from abuses, assuring that they can combine school and work, paying
them fair wages and providing them with healthy working environments.
Nevertheless, today, most companies have understood that although the costs of a
clean production process are high, they are investing more in research and waste
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disposal because the have found out that they can obtain a benefit from these
efforts by letting their customers know what they are doing.
Most of them have become environmentally aware and do not mind paying a little
more for ecologic products or environmentally friendly materials.
Marketing advisors have learned to make a profit of this money as they have
included news and information about these contributions to the common welfare in
their advertisements.
At the same time, social issues have found their place in industry too. Big
corporations are supporting social missions and they are helping the communities
where they have their plants and buildings and dedicating a part of their benefits to
sponsor cultural events.
GRAMMAR POINT
When the speaker wants to express an opinion about an action that occurred in
the past, saying that these were alternative courses of action available at that
time but which were not adopted, he or she may use the structure:
Could have + Past Participle
Look at these two examples:
I could have done without the jeep.
I could have cycled to work or used the tube.
They mean that instead of cycling, a jeep was used to move through the city,
but, there was a different option which was not taken at the moment.
This sentence shows an action:
She came at 10 o'clock.
It is a past event that cannot be changed but if we want to say that other
alternatives were possible we can say:
She could have come earlier.
The structure:
Should have + Past Participle
Can also be used, although if it has a slightly different meaning.
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• In the affirmative, it indicates that there was a better option, and what was
done was not as good its alternative.
These items didn't sell well.
They should have reduced their price sooner.
In the negative, it is used to show that, in the speaker's opinion a particular past
action was a mistake or regrettable:
He shouldn't have taken so long to finish his report.
The structure:
Might have + Participle
Indicates a remote probability of a thing which has not happened, but it possible
existed in the past. It disappeared because no appropriate action was taken at
the time.
He might have won the price.
Company advertise
Read this text about a company's alternatives; behave ethically or not. Note how
these expressions are used:
“Our company could have employed children as many others do, but we are
very worried about the role of big companies in today's society. It is true that our
benefits might have increased by doing so, but on the other hand negative
publicity could have damaged our corporative image.
Nevertheless we have noticed that in many underdeveloped countries, children's
salaries are essential for their families' survival, so even though we don't recruit
them for our factories, they continue to be exploited by other companies, most of
them by local manufacturers, who are interested in offering low competitive
prices to wholesalers and retailers.
Now, we think that we should have employed children over thirteen, assuring
them healthier labour conditions and fair salaries. Besides, we should have
given them some sort of training, as we do with our technical staff in Europe.
That policy might have been more realistic and successful”.
LANGUAGE FORMS
In these sentences the main idea is that there was a discarded alternative.
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Our company could have employed children.
Negative publicity could have damaged our corporative image.
In these sentences the main idea is that the other option was better.
We should have employed children over thirteen.
We should have given them some sort of training.
In the following sentence the main idea is that there was a probability of a
different alternative.
That policy might have been more realistic and successful.
In spoken language should / could can be contracted with the subject as 'd.
Yard sales
Developed countries are basing their economics in a non-stop production of all
types of products. Companies need compulsive consumers who buy constantly
and throw away old items convinced that they need to acquire the new ones
because they are better or more necessary or healthier.
Therefore, these citizens produce huge amounts of litter, things that can still be
useful and would be appreciated by others, are destroyed; however, many other
people are starting to find new ways of giving a second opportunity to these
objects. One example of this new conscience is yard sales which have become
extremely popular throughout the United States.
Read this text about yard sales and look at the use of linking words.
“Yard sales are to Americans what family gatherings are to Spaniards, a part of
everyday life. As an American Saying goes “One man's trash is another man's
treasure”. Even American children acquire a taste for these markets early on,
putting old toys for sale in the front lawns. Now in its 16 th year, the World's
Longest Yard Sale runs through four states. The buying and selling may take place
in tents, yards, fields.
Even at intersections. Anything can be put on sale and anyone can participate,
adults as well as children. The cost of the various objects (furniture, clothing,
food…) on display varies as much as do the objects themselves. The event has
attracted as many as 400.000 people, despite August temperatures and limited
publicity.
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So famous has the event become in the last years that the sale has been featured
in popular magazines such as Newsweek and National newspapers, for example
the Washington Post or The Enquirer. It merits a visit.
For here, along the rural back roads of America's Deep South, the buyer need not
beware as there are no just friendly faces and rich local colour, both difficult to find
in a big city. Besides, the landscape is worth the trip”.
GRAMMAR POINT
There are many different words and phrases used to organize ideas in speaking
and writing.
Notice that the position of these words vary, sometimes a word comes in the
middle of a sentence to join two clauses. Other times it comes at the beginning
and it is followed by a comma in writing or a pause in speech.
• As much As / As many as: they link sentences comparing.
The cost varies as much as objects do themselves.
The event has attracted as many as 400.000 people.
• And: it is used to join words or part of sentences. They are at the same level.
Anything can be put on sale and anyone can participate.
• As: it links sentences meaning consequence or exemplification:
As an American saying goes.
The buyer need not beware as there are no bad deals.
• Both: it is used to emphasize the fact that there are two things involved:
Both difficult to find in a big city.
• Also / Too / As well as: they are used to describe two actions at the same
time, or to add actions of things.
Adults as well as children.
Also know as the Highway 127 Corridor Sale.
• For example / such as: they are use to give examples. “For example”, can
be placed at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
However “Such as” cannot be used at the beginning of a sentence.
• Even: it is used to say that something is surprising, or to emphasize
comparative adjectives.
Even American Children acquire an early taste for these markets early on.
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• Besides: it is used to show that we are adding a point or a comment to a
sentence. It is usually placed at the beginning of a sentence, separated by
commas.
Besides, the landscape is worth the trip.
Recycling
Unwanted objects can be garbage for an individual and a treasure for another. A
different option to dispose of our home's waste is to recycle it. Maybe we do not
know what to do but many people; including artists are using litter to create
beautiful sculptures, or useful objects that can be given a new use. New
businesses are appearing to satisfy these ecological customers.
Read this text to find out more linking words at work.
“Do you have a handful of unpaired socks that you don't know what to do with?
Instead of throwing them to the trash you could learn what to do with them.
First of all you could follow the idea of an Arizona recycling group which has
developed out an innovative idea. In fact, to avoid creating more garbage this
group started to connect people who were interested in getting rid of unwanted
objects with others who would like to have them, all via e-mail. In this way, free
cycling was born. It now boasts a network of more than 35.000 people actually.
Finally, as its name implies all the items posted are fire, although these postings
are moderated by volunteers either in local or national groups”.
GRAMMAR POINT
When we connect ideas or paragraphs, we can follow a time pattern, or a
sequence. Using linking words which establish a list of points using:
• First of all / Secondly / thirdly… / Finally
Look at the example from the text:
First of all you could learn what to do with them.
Finally, as its name implies, all the items posted are free.
• In fact / actually. They are use to give more detail or surprising information:
“actually” is often misunderstood and translated for the Spanish word
“actualmente”, when its meaning is closer to the word “really”.
In this example from the text, more information is given:
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In fact, to avoid creating more garbage, this group started to connect people
who were interested in getting rid of unwanted objects, with others who
would like to have them.
• In my view / Personally. These linking expressions are used in formal
speech and writing to introduce our own ideas.
Here it is an example from the text:
Personally, I think this idea deserves visiting its web.
• Instead (of). We use instead (of) to mean in the place of something else. At
the end of a sentence “instead” is used without the preposition “of”.
Take this example:
Instead of throwing them to the trash you could learn what to do with them.
Look at this other sentence:
You could recycle them instead.
• Except / Except for. They mean: not including:
They recycle all types of objects, except batteries.
• Either, or. It is used to describe a choice or an alternative. In the example:
These posting are moderated by volunteers either in local or national
groups.
Either… or establishes the need of a choice.
Notice that the sequence “Or…or” is not possible in English. It is possible to
begin a sentence with “or” only when we complete someone else's
sentence.
We could throw those shocks away I suppose….
… or we could recycle them.
Some time words such as since, yet and while can also be used as liking words,
but in that case they have completely different meaning, with this use they are
more common in writing:
Since meaning as
I couldn't swim, since I had a cold.
Yet meaning although
No one replied to my call, yet I know they were in.
While meaning although
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The first two buses were full, while the next was completely empty.
These linking words are the most common in English, but you could find some
more which are not used very frequently in today's language.
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3 Being impersonal
How things are made
When describing a process we often use the passive voice, because we do not
want to focus in the subject but in the description of the events themselves.
Read this text about the Hawthorne Experiments and pay attention to the verbs:
“The Hawthorne experiments were conducted in the 1920s at Western Electric's
Hawthorne works in Chicago. They were trying to demonstrate the effects of
lightning conditions in production. More than 20.000 workers were involved in
them.
In the first experiment, lightening conditions in the factory were improved and it
was found out that the output also improved. In the second experiment, the
lightening conditions were made worse, unexpectedly output went up again.
Finally, the lighting conditions in the factory were returned to normal, surprisingly,
the worker's productivity improved again.
What conclusion could be drawn from these experiments? Well, maybe productivity
was related to the amount of light or maybe not. What they proved is that the
output improved because of the attention that was being paid to the workers. They
felt valuated simply because they were part of an experiment”.
These experiments are a classic about behavioural psychology and are frequently
mentioned in the world of commerce and marketing to focus on the importance of
the individual.
This is so not only in productive stages, but also in selling. Customers are different
individuals and they want to be treated in a personal way, as if they were the only
and most important clients of a business. It is important to know as much as
possible about them.
Different cultures need to have different approaches. For instance, British prefer
durability and comfort in a product; Spanish prefer cheap fashionable objects than
can be replaced every new season; Germans like quality and seriousness… etc.
But, we can find that in many stores, all these nationalities are treated equally and
this is a big mistake.
Age and educational background are also important when approaching potential
client and we must be aware that our explanations or apologies have to meet their
expectations.
We must use a clear and simple language if our customer is old or uneducated, but
we must be exact and extensive when giving explanations to a well educated one.
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Some say that even sex affects the way people react to a problem.
That is why sales people and sales representatives or agents have to be trained in
dealing with demands and complaints according to people and their circumstances.
A little bit of psychology always helps.
The same happens when a client complains about something. Mediterranean
people: Spanish, Italian, Greek, make a lot of noise, but they rarely place a
demand or a written complaint. On the contrary, German and British consumers
would expect an immediate replacement of the product and some sort of
compensation for the trouble caused. Consumer associations are very strong in
both countries and their citizens have been educated in asking for their rights.
GRAMMAR POINT
Take a look at these sentences from the text:
More than 20.000 workers were involved in them.
Lighting conditions in the factory were improved.
They were made worse.
Lighting conditions were returned to normal.
You can see that they are all passive. The verb is made passive by using be
followed by a Past Participle. Be can be Present, Future etc… as any active
verb.
When we use the passive voice we change the focus, from the subject to the
verbal object. Thus, we often put the attention on something that happens to
someone, when we do not want to focus on the person who does the action.
Therefore, the passive is often used to talk about systems and processes.
Only transitive verbs, that is, verbs with an object can be made passive.
So, we use the passive:
• To avoid mentioning the doer of an action because:
-It's unknown
-It's not important
-It's a group / an institution
-It's an impersonal / official announcement
-In process descriptions where we are not interested in the agent but in the
action.
-In impersonal language such as formal written announcements or wherever
an impersonal tone is intended.
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The passive is used more in writing and formal speech.
Passive in Spanish
Notice that in Spanish the passive is less used than in English. This is due to the
fact that Spanish has an impersonal structure with “se”, which is widely used
instead of the passive voice when the subject is not important or when we want
to focus on the result of the verb or on the process.
The Agent (Passive)
In passive sentences the doer of the action (what in active sentences is the
subject) is less important than the result of the action and its effect on the receiver.
The doer of the action is introduced at the end of the sentence with “by”;
grammatically, it is called “the agent”. It is not necessary to mention the agent.
There are several reasons for this:
• When the agent is not known.
My car was stolen last week.
If we knew who had stolen it we would have mentioned the name of the
person, but we don't know.
• When the agent is obvious.
My house has been painted recently.
It is not necessary to say “by the painters”. They are the people who usually
paint houses, if it had been my eighty-year-old grandmother the person who
did the painting we could have mentioned it.
• When the agent is unimportant.
A lot of English books are sold every year.
Who sells the books? We don't care. If it was a well-known book shop, or a
person or a publishing firm we would say it.
However, in many passive sentences the “by-phrase” is used to emphasize the
doer, because it is a well-known person, an institution, or a means by which we
have undergone a process.
Look at these examples:
Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
This book has been published by the university.
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Our report was made by computer.
The doer in the first sentence is a famous writer. In second sentence is an
institution and in the last sentence it is a machine or a process. As you can see,
the passive is widely used when an impersonal tone is intended.
Look at this text which offers a clear explanation about how a computer works, and
the different peripherals it has and what they are used for:
“A computer is basically a typewriter with extra keys. Al the information can be
shown on the monitor which is actually a television for your computer.
The Central Processing Unit, or CPU for short, is the computer's brain and the hard
disk is where all the information is stored.
A printer can be used to out put paper copies of whatever you designed on the
screen. But if you want to invert the process, put pages of text or pictures on a
scanner and they will be transferred to your screen.
A mouse is attached to the keyboard and it allows you to select items on the
screen. Lately, modems have been developed to send data over telephone lines.
You can be connected to the outside world and transfer your data to any computer
no matter where.
Loudspeakers are usually built inside the computer, but you can get external ones
for a better quality of sound. Electronic data is often stored on floppy or compact
discs. Which are introduced into the computer's CD-ROM drive so that your data
can be read”.
In these examples from the text:
Your data can be read.
A printer can be used.
You can be connected to the outside world.
You can see that a passive infinitive is made by using this structure:
Modal auxiliary + be + Past Participle
The passive voice can also be used with continuous tenses, particularly Present
and Past Continuous. It is made with:
A form of to be + being + Past Participle
The computer is being repaired by a technician.
Samples were being given out at promotional fairs. Verbs with two objects
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The passive voice exists in all tenses, in simple and continuous form and with
modal verbs. Passive forms are rarely used with: Present Perfect Continuous,
Future Perfect Continuous, and Past Perfect Continuous.
Look at the table below and notice that all passive sentences contain different
tenses of the verb to be+ Past Participle.
Passive sentences
Tense or modal Example in passive
Present Continuous My car is being repaired.
Present Simple Cocoa is grown in Ghana.
Past Simple
The hospital was built in
1986.
Past Continuous
I realised I was being
followed.
Future Simple (will)
The boxes will be delivered
tomorrow.
Present Perfect My car has been stolen.
Past Perfect
The house had been badly
damaged.
Future Perfect
She will have been told by
five o'clock .
Modals
She must be taken to
hospital immediately.
Infinitive (after a verb)
He waned to be introduce
to the director.
Read this text and pay attention to some passive sentences which are very
common in English, but absolutely impossible in Spanish. They are known as
intermediate passives.
“Be paid on time, or they will be made pay the price”. This has been the message
from the government and the European Union since 1997 when a report on late
payments in commercial transactions was published by the European Commission.
Around 10.000 U.K. businesses fail each year due to late payment. The Late
Payment Directive aims to encourage a culture were debts are paid within the
agreed terms. The U.K. was one of the first countries to implement it and these has
been a statutory right for small and medium enterprises, owed money by large
firms or by the public sector. An interest on late payments can be claimed since
November 1998.
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Amends to the legislation came into effect in 2002, and Firms owed money can
now claim up to 100 pounds in debt recovery costs for each overdue bill. But the
Better Payment Practice Group points out that rather than using the legislation as a
last resort. It should be employed as a deterrent against late payment, as part of
standard credit management techniques”.
If you are interested in this subject you can go to: Payontime and learn now to
protect your business from late payment.
Look at these sentences:
They will be made pay the price.
Small enterprises owed money by large firms or by the public sector.
Why do they seem “odd”? Well, the answer is that the direct object has not been
made the subject of the passive sentence.
GRAMMAR POINT
Some verbs can have two objects, for example we can “sell something to
somebody”. The same happens with other verbs such as, “give”, “lend”, “offer,
“promise”, “send”, “take”, “buy”, “sep”, “make”, “prepare” and “save”.
In active sentences we can use these verbs in two ways:
Peter gave Karen a present.
Peter gave a present to Karen.
In Spanish only the second sentence can be made passive, by taking the verbal
object to the subject position, but in English, there is another possibility: we can
take the indirect object and make it the subject of the passive sentence.
So: Karen was given a present.
As you can see from this example the direct object a present remains in the
same position and has the same function that it had in the active sentence. The
agent is often left out in this structure. This option is preferred in English, and it
is difficult to understand for a Spanish speaker.
VERBS WITH A PARTICLE
Although we have said that only transitive verbs with a direct object can be
made passive, this use gives us some exceptions. Some intransitive verbs
followed by a particle (usually a preposition) can also be made passive.
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Look at these examples and note that the particle remains in the passive
sentences.
Active Passive
They laughed at him He was laughed at
Someone has slept in this
bed
This bed has been slept
in
Someone has paid for the
dinner
The dinner has been
paid for
Doing a market research
When you have to do something, you may need a professional service or advice. It
is not you who perform the action but another person who does something for you.
That's a very particular case of a passive structure in English.
We can use either have or get followed by a noun and a Past Participle. The verbs
have and get can be used in any tense.
Look at this text and find out some examples:
“Companies or organizations which want to discover how the public perceive their
products or services have some market research done. This research often takes
the form of a survey. If you car doesn't work then you'll have it repaired by a good
mechanic.
Thus marketing researchers can give you the right point of view. For that reason,
they design questions to investigate the attitudes of the public. People are asked to
respond to a carefully formulated questionnaire.
Researchers may get a complete random sample of people interviewed or may
have people selected because they share important characteristics. For example,
women accompanied by one or two small children or people over sixty-five who are
representative of the segment of the market that has been targeted.
The findings of this research will be then the object of a great deal of analysis and
interpretation. There are several marketing research methods”.
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Look at these sentences:
• Companies…. Have some market research done.
• If your car doesn't work, then you'll have it repaired by a good mechanic.
• Researchers may get a complete random sample of people interviewed, or
may have people selected because…
• Selected volunteers are given different objects and have samples of food or
drink examined, tested and compared.
• The researcher has the discussion filmed secretly.
As you can see from the text this structure is often used in different tenses but in all
the cases the meaning is similar: another one does something for you.
In British English have is preferred while in American English get is the most.
Alliances
Read this text about different corporate Alliances and acquisitions:
As business and the world economy become increasingly more competitive
companies have to strengthen their operations to remain profitable companies can
go about this in a number of ways: they can set up a joint venture, this is when two
or more companies agree to collaborate and jointly invest in a separate business or
project.
This type of deal allows the partners to combine their strengths in one specific
area. In this type of union both companies remain separated.
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On the other hand, two companies, usually in the same field of industry come
together to form one company. This is called a merger. Companies merge for
many reasons, for example to increase market share and cut down costs in certain
areas such as research, development and advertising.
Finally, an acquisition or takeover is when one company accumulates enough of
another company's shares to take over control and ownership.
However, one of the most common problems when there is a re-organization is the
staff. The new company usually intends to reduce or replace its employees.
Sometimes, this process can be traumatic because many workers are made
redundant and become unemployed. The oldest ones are often offered early
retirements which could be accompanied by economic compensations.
One of the biggest deal was carried off by Philiph Morris, a well known tobacco
company based in the United States which bought the Swiss Chocolate and coffee
group Jackobs Suchard, and recently a Spanish bank Santander run by the Botín
family has started up negotiations with the Abbey Bank in Britain in order to buy it
and thus be present in the British market.
Younger staff can be kept but they should perform new tasks and sometimes, they
should move to a different city or country, following the company's interests. In
these cases, only colleagues' support can help the “old-newcomers” adapt to the
new situation”.
GRAMMAR POINT
If you look closely at the text you will find out that there are several verbs which
go together with a particle. They are called phrasal verbs. They are normal
verbs followed by one or two prepositions.
Look at these examples from the text.
• go about
• set up
• cut down
• take over
• carry off
• start up
When the preposition (or adverb) is added, the meaning of the original verb
changes. Sometimes you can guess the meaning because there is still a
relationship, but others there is a new meaning that is completely different.
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The examples you have seen have only one preposition but there are other
verbs followed by two particles:
To live up to (be as good as someone expects).
The new campaign didn't live up to our expectations.
Look forward to (think you will enjoy).
I'm looking forward to going on holiday this year.
We have already seen this verb before, because it is widely used in letters to
close with a polite sentence.
I'm looking forward to hearing from you… / to meeting you.
Look out onto / over (have a view of)
Our hotel room looks out onto the lake.
Put up with (accept with out complaining)
I can't put up with all this noise.
There are some other verbs which may not use the final preposition, such as:
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Verbs which may not use the final preposition
Catch up (with) (reach
someone by going faster).
You can rest now and catch
up with us later.
You are going to fast, I can't
catch up.
Cut down on (reduce the
amount of).
She has decided to cut
down on heating this winter.
You are eating too much,
you should cut down.
Drop in on (visit for a short
time).
Let's drop in on David while
we are in town.
The next time you come,
please drop in.
Get along / on with (have
a friendly relationship).
James doesn't get along
with his partner.
We work in the same office,
but we don't get on.
Keep up with (move at the
same speed).
You are going too fast! I
can't keep up with you.
I can't keep up, maths is too
difficult.
Run out of (have no more
of something).
My car has run out of petrol.
There isn't any more wine,
we've run out.
Phrasal verbs
Many countries do not allow foreign companies to set in to operate within their
territories because governments fear that these groups will call off their
investments and get rid of their workers whenever they want.
And get out of one country to start up again in a different one where the labour's
costs are cheaper or the economic situation is more favourable.
Without caring about the fact that they may cause that country's economy a great
damage and without considering that they are letting down a lot of people who lose
their jobs suddenly and sometimes unexpectedly.
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In recent days, we have had some examples of this behaviour with companies that
have dismantled their plants to operate in a different place, although they were
obtaining big benefits.
Other companies, such as the Swedish “Boliden” accepted state subsidies to
develop new plans and manufacturing strategies and after a few years, the
company abandoned the country leaving behind a great environmental disaster
which took a lot of money and effort to arrange.
Underdeveloped countries have often been an easy prey for these groups which
had abused from their natural resources without offering them appropriate
compensations. That is the reason why countries like China prefer joint ventures to
foreign companies and have legislated against multinationals to prevent them from
benefiting from low labor costs and taxes without investing a part of their huge
profits in research and development.
Governments are now trying to be more careful with these big multinationals which
are only interested in earning money quickly and do not hesitate in abandoning a
project for a new and more productive one.
As we have seen in the above mentioned example, a global economy can also
bring important troubles, and sometimes, big companies seem to have more power
than most governments, surely more money than some of them have.
GRAMMAR POINT
There are phrasal verbs with two parts which are:
• Transitive and inseparable: these phrasal verbs take an object (so they are
transitive). The object must come after the preposition and not between the
verb and the preposition. That's why they are called “inseparable”.
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Transitive and inseparable
Call for (come to your house and
collect)
We'll call for you at
about 8:00.
Call on (visit for a short time)
I called on my old
teacher, as I hadn't
seen her for ages!
Deal with (take action or solve a
problem)
Could you deal with
this customer's
problem, please?
Get at (try to say, suggest)
Helen didn't
understand what her
boss was getting at.
Head for (go in the direction of)
He escaped and
headed for London.
Join in (take part, contribute to)
Alan started singing
happy birthday and
everyone joined in.
See to (pay attention)
The brakes need
seeing to.
Stand for (tolerate)
I won't stand for so
much noise.
Take after (be similar in
appearance or character)
Karen takes after her
mother.
• Transitive and separable: they take an object (thus they are transitive) and
this object can come after the preposition or between the verb and the
preposition (so the verbs are “separable”).
In general, we can say that object phrases tend to be put after the
preposition while pronouns (such as: you, it, him, her, us, them…) are put
between the verb and the preposition.
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Transitive and separable
Bring up (look after a child until
adult)
Tom's aunt brought
him up after his
parents died.
Call off (cancel)
The school called
off the match
because of the
storm.
Clear up (make clean and tidy)
Can you clear up
the room before you
leave it?
Cut off (be disconnected)
My mother cut me
off when I was
talking to my friend.
Fill in (complete by writing) Fill in the blanks.
Give up (stop doing something)
I gave up my hopes
and expectations.
Knock out (make unconscious)
Tyson knocked his
opponent out in the
first round.
Let down (disappoint, fail to keep a
promise)
He said he would
help me with the
exam but he let me
down.
Look up (find information in a
reference book)
I looked this word
up in an
encyclopaedia.
Put off (post pone)
The meeting was
put off because
John was ill.
Take up (start a hobby or an
activity)
Sam has taken up
mountain biking.
Try on (put on clothes to see if they
are suitable).
I tried the coat on
but it was too big.
Switch on / off (begin or stop
operating electrical equipment)
Switch the radio on.
• Intransitive with two parts: these phrasal verbs are not followed by and object.
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Intransitive with two parts
Break down (stop
working)
My car broke down
yesterday.
Drop out (stop before you
finish)
I was typing a letter but I
dropped out.
Get on (make progress)
Nina is getting on well in
her school.
Set off / out (to begin a
journey)
I set off early to avoid the
traffic.
Take off (when a plane
leaves the ground)
Our plane took off at night.
Turn up (arrive,
We invited many people to
the show but only five
turned up.
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4 Writing in/ for business
Negotiations
One of the most important things when trying to reach an agreement or to settle a
business is the way you negotiate the terms of it.
Just think about your last deal. Are you satisfied with the way you handled it?
Probably you could have done better if you have taken into account some useful
hints.
First of all, prepare the meeting. If you haven't had time to do it, cancel it otherwise
you'll be probably wasting your time.
Make sure you know the arrangements: place, time and set aside enough time for
the meeting if you look bored or pressed the other person may think that your main
interest is elsewhere.
Good negotiations always have a clear set of objectives. You can't have everything
you are asking for, so you need to know what you really want to achieve; list your
main objectives and be ready for them.
Prepare a strategy on how you want the meeting to go, but be ready to adapt or to
respond to a new offer, flexibility is vital.
Your secondary objectives can be put in a different list and you have to be ready to
renounce to achieve them.
Sometimes, when you are negotiating in a team you can play different roles or take
a different approach. Your colleagues may have different fields of expertise, so let
each one speak when the theme is about one of your weak points. You can make
concessions, real or apparent if it helps you achieve your goals.
Be polite and do not interrupt the other speaker, you should always avoid and
atmosphere of conflict and saying constantly “NO”.
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NEGOTIATION TIPS
The ultimatum approach
Presenting your counter-offer as the final offer isn't appropriate. Present your
counter-offers and consider their offers without ultimatums. Decide on whether
the offer on the table is acceptable, only after you have walked away and used
some time to think. Negotiation is the art of exploring mutually beneficial
possibilities, instead of issuing ultimatums.
Being negative
Continually pointing out what is wrong with the offer on the table is not
particularly pleasant for the other party. They are trying to find a solution, while
you are constantly looking for what's wrong.
Talking too much
Some would say that the "winner" of any negotiation is the one who talks less.
Be succinct and reasonable in presenting your views, and listen carefully. Don't
ramble on and don't repeat yourself.
Falling in love with one element of compensation
Focusing exclusively on one component of the compensation could be a kiss of
death, particularly if the employer is severely constrained on that dimension; for
example, "Less than 1% equity in the company is unacceptable."
Being unreasonable
"I can find anywhere at least $50.000 more than what you are offering." If that is
the case, why are you negotiating? Time to go to where you can find that kind of
money!
Your behaviour should be polite and respectful you won't gain anything by being
rude and if you are talking to someone whose first language is not yours, don't take
for granted that he or she is deaf or stupid.
No matter how loud you speak if they don't understand English, but it may look as if
you were aggressive because your body language or your shouts, trying to make
yourself understood, may confuse the other person; you'd better employ an
interpreter in those situations.
You can ask and offer clarification and keep notes of the main points as the
meeting progresses, even if there's a minute-taker or it's being recorded, therefore
you will be able to make sure that all parties agree on what has been settled before
you leave the meeting. Finally, follow up the meeting a few days later with a letter
or a contract listing the terms on which you agreed.
It is a good idea to prepare a meeting planner to remember all the important points.
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Meeting planner points
Subject
Date
Time
Preparation required (documents, charts, graphs…)
People present
Main objectives (minimum acceptable).
Secondary objectives (here you can make concessions and make them believe
that you are renouncing to an important thing).
Follow up (prepare a schedule to confirm all the details: e-mails, contracts, faxes,
etc.).
GRAMMAR POINT
These are useful sentences to arrange a meeting:
• What about next week / next month / next day?
• Are you free on Monday…?
• Could you make it the following Friday / week…?
• Would Thursday be convenient / suitable for you?
• Shall we meet on / next…?
• Of course you can accept or refuse the suggestion but you must offer a
solution or an apology:
• No, I'm sorry; I'm busy all day What about the following day?
• I'm afraid I have a previous appointment. Let me check if I can change it.
• That's not very convenient but I could do the Friday? Is that all right with
you?
• Impossible, I'll be on a business trip. Can I call you tomorrow? I don't have
my diary with me now.
Proposing areas of discussion:
• I thought we ought to meet / speak about / take into account.
• Maybe, we should consider…
• I think should start with a review of…
• I suggest that we look at the question of…
• In my opinion, it should be useful to sort out the basic agenda now.
• In my point of view we should establish / clarify the main objectives of…
• I want to put this suggestion forward…
Accepting points of view. When you agree on something you should look
enthusiastic, so you have to give a special intonation to these sentences:
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• Yes, I see your point.
• Good point!
• Point taken!
• Okay, I agree.
• That's right. It's a good start.
• I'd go along with that.
• Yes, I agree with that.
• Write it down and I'll sign it (American English).
• You / We've got a deal! (American English).
However, there are situations where you do not agree or you are totally
opposed. Try to be polite when expressing reservation.
These sentences may help you say no without using that word:
• I'm afraid I really can't go along with that.
• I'm not so sure.
• I don't think I totally agree with you.
• To be frank I'd prefer… (more commission, for example).
• I propose we vote on it first (only vote when you are sure of winning the
voting, in the case that your business opponents are more numerous do not
take vote on anything!).
• I'm sorry to disagree.
• In fact, to be honest. I don't share you opinion / point.
• I thought it was agreed that…. And that's not what we are having / speaking /
talking about now.
Information checkers
When talking with people you often need to check what you have understood.
There are two main reasons for this:
Reason 1: the other person is not an English native speaker, so you want to make
sure that what they are saying is really what they mean.
Reason 2: you want to check that the agreements you have reached are truly
accepted and recognized.
We can do this using some useful sentences such as:
• Let me see if I got this right…
• So, what you are saying is that…
• Let me just go over this again…
• Let me put / get this straight.
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• I didn't catch what you said, can you tell me if…
• What you mean is…
• Did you say that…?
• That is…
But we can also use tag questions to check. What is a tag question? It is a short
phrase at the end of a statement that turns it into a question.
They are formed using auxiliaries (do, be, have or a modal). A positive statement
has a negative tag and vice-versa. Some statements do not have auxiliaries, what
do we do then?
Look at this example:
You speak German?
The auxiliary verb for questions or negative sentences would be do as this
statement is a Present Simple tense. Then, we use do and since the sentence is
affirmative the tag has to be negative:
You speak German, don't you?
When we use a negative tag we expect the answer will be yes.
On the other hand, if we use a positive tag we expect the answer will be no.
You don't like flying, do you? Oh no, I hate it.
You know the answer, don't you? Sure. It's…
Here are some examples of tag questions showing different verb forms and a
mixture of positive and negative tags.
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Another important fact about tag questions is intonation which can either rise or
fall.
• If it rises, then is a real question. The speaker is not sure and needs
information. The other person will continue speaking afterwards.
You speak Japanese, don't you?
Yes, I do. I learned while I was working in Tokyo for Toshiba.
• If the intonation falls, then it is just a question for confirmation. The first
speaker wants to check information and will continue speaking afterwards.
A: You speak Japanese, don't you?
B: Yes, that's right. I do.
A: Good because we need an interpreter for a meeting we have with a
Japanese businessman.
• Sometimes we use short questions to reply to what someone says; we do
this to show interest, surprise or uncertainty. The meaning is something
close to: Really? Or, Is that true? The only difference is that these questions
do not have a change in the auxiliary verb, which is there is no change of
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positive to negative and vice-versa. Although you will find many native
speakers that do not follow this rule.
I've never eaten hamburgers.
Haven't you? (It shows surprise).
We're leaving tomorrow.
Are we? (it means you are not sure).
Problematic sentences
Some sentences are problematic. For example:
The tag for “I am” is aren't.
I'm a survivor, aren't I?
The tag for an imperative is will or won't, even if the imperative is formed with have.
Both negatives and positive are possible. Look at these examples:
• Have a seat, will you?
• Have a seat, won't you?
• Sit down, will you?
• Sit down, won't you?
• Be quiet, will you?
• Be quiet, won't you?
How to sell a product
Competition is a key word in the world of business. Our economy is based on
consuming more than we really need, therefore selling techniques are essential to
assure a product's success.
Companies invest a lot of money in publicity and eventually, every cent spent in
marketing will provide a huge benefit. If a business wants to survive they must
know how to gain customer confidence, how to present its products and how to
close a sale.
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First impressions count weather you agree on the fact that first impressions and
appearance are important or on the contrary, you are one of those who thinks that
good products do not need publicity, you will shop better if the sales person who is
going to help you has a pleasant smile and a neat appearance. That's the reason
why most companies want their sales staff to wear a distinctive type of clothing,
(sometimes a uniform) and are good looking.
The next stage is to identify the needs of a prospective client. This is done by
asking questions although some clients do not have a clear idea of what they want,
or they have an idea which is not really suitable for them.
Effective sales staff will not only demonstrate good product knowledge but also
what is more convenient for each type of consumer. They must be interested not
only in selling, but also in advising.
Other clients seem to know quite well what they want however, it would be a good
idea to show them something else, maybe they are going to buy it too, or if not you
can reinforce the sale by pointing out the comparative advantages of the first
choice.
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The seller attitude
The seller's job is to help people understand what their systems require in order to
change.
• Only a person working or living within a culture or system can understand it.
(The seller can never truly understand the buyer's system because it is so
complex and dynamic - if you are in any doubt about this think how long it
takes to really get to know an organization when you start a new job...).
• People only make a change when they're sure they can manage the
resulting chaos.
• A seller is uniquely positioned to help the buyer discover how to solve a
problem within their system.
• Only the buyer, never the seller, is able to work their way through the
decision within the system. However, the seller can help the buyer do this
because the seller has the macro view.
• The buyer needs to recognise all the specifics of what a solution will entail
within his or her unique environment.
• By matching the buyer's unique buying criteria, the seller is a true advisor
and can be easily differentiated from the competition.
• The seller is uniquely positioned to be a brand ambassador for the supplier.
Yet, the salesperson must make sure that clients do not feel pressurized into
deciding on one thing they are not totally sure, because it is likely that the client will
try to return what they bought under pressure, once they reconsider their purchase
at home.
A good sales technique does not stop with a successful sale. Interest and care
must still be shown to ensure customers satisfaction.
It has become a common practice to maintain some form of post-sales contact
through the use of a welcome home card, both to install customer loyalty, and to
encourage a high level of repeated business.
Most companies offer discounts to their clients. They send them promotional
brochures and invite them to try new products; give them free samples or company
cards that accumulate points or credits which can be changed by gifts or vouchers
to acquire more products.
One of the most important things together with gaining market share is fidelising
clients. They will continue buying the company's products.
The skills of a successfully selling, requires human interest, dedication and hard
work.
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Selling techniques
Telephoning other than traditional shops
A company’s worker calls prospective clients to explain the company’s services
and offers and tries to get a contract on the phone.
Mailing
A company sends booklets and publicity which contains coupons or an order sheet
where clients can place their orders.
E-shopping
Many traditional shops, hotels, car / house rentals, trips, etc. are now offered on
the internet where you can buy any product giving the number of your credit card.
They are working now on an electronic signature which can be used safely and
recognised as your legal signature in contracts.
Tele shopping
Many products are offered on television daily, a telephone number usually appears
on the screen, where you can telephone to order what you want.
Catalogue selling
You look at different products on a catalogue, the price is printed on the item and
different sizes, colours, etc. can be consulted in the catalogue which often uses
models or pictures to show the goods on display.
Selling visits / Home selling
A salesperson from a Company visits you at your own house and offers you the
company’s products. This is a widely used technique for bookselling but not only
books are sold this way, also electric appliances, cosmetics and other types of
merchandise can be sold like that.
Commercial letters
Commercial letters are one of the most important tasks when working in trade and
marketing, because most relations developed between companies, or with
customers and suppliers are in a written form.
Although, today's technology allows other types of communication, faster than mail,
at the end of a business agreement or transaction, there always should be some
sort of written document.
So letters are used to follow up agreements, to place orders, to complaint…
leaving a trace of what we have agreed upon, as a signed document can be a valid
legal proof in any disagreement whereas phone conversations or informal E-mails
may not. That is why they have not disappeared from our working routines.
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LETTERS STRUCTURE
Commercial letters have a fixed structure which is repeated whatever their
purpose is this structure has not changed much.
They all start with the sender's address. In correspondence is written on the top
right-hand side of the page, although in the U.K. in contrast to the practice in
some countries, it is not usual to write the sender's name before de sender's
address.
The date is written below the sender's address, sometimes separated from it by
a space. In the case that there is a printed letterhead it is written on the right-
hand side of the page.
The month in the date should not be written in figures as they can be confusing.
For example, 11.1.93 means 11th of January 1993 in the U.K. but 1 st
November 1993.
Many firms leave out the abbreviation “th” after the date. Other firms transpose
the date and the month, for instance October 24, instead of 24 October. These
are just matters of preference.
The receiver's address or “Inside” is written below the sender's address and on
the opposite side of the page. When the surname of the person you are writing
to is known, you should write it on the first line of the address, preceded by a
courtesy title and either the person's initial or his/her first given name. For
example: Mr. JE Smith, or Mr. John Smith.
Courtesy titles
When you don't know the name of the person you are writing to, you may know
or be able to assume their title or position in the company, in which case you
can use it in the address (Sales manager….) you can also address it to a
department or to the company itself.
An alternative to including the recipient's name or position in the address is to
use an attention line, for example “For the attention of the Production manager”.
Courtesy titles used in address are “Mr.”, “Mrs.” (for a married women) “Miss”
(for unmarried women), Ms. (is used for both, married or unmarried women).
This is the best way to address a woman in a business letter, besides you may
not be sure whether she is single or not.
Salutations
When we do not know the person we open the letter with:
Dear Sir / Madam...
Dear Sirs” is used to address a company in general.
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When we know the name of the person the salutation starts with Dear followed
by a courtesy title and the person's surname, in salutations, initials or first
names are not used.
The body of the letter
It is the reason for writing. You should note down everything you want to include
in it before you start writing, and make sure that you haven't included any
unnecessary information.
Useful advices
Below are some useful advices for commercial letters.
Commercial correspondence offer has an old fashioned style, which sometimes
could be difficult to understand. You have to find a balance between clarity,
simplicity and courtesy which is not easy to achieve.
• You should aim for a neutral language avoiding idioms and colloquial
language.
• Organize your letter separating main ideas into different paragraphs and try
to be accurate.
• Avoid mistakes (grammar, spelling and punctuation should be carefully
checked).
• Logical sequencing is also important, don't go jumping from point 1 to 4 and
back to 3 or your reader will not follow you.
Closing
If you don't know the name of the person, close the letter with “Yours faithfully”
but if the letter begins with a personal name, close it with “yours sincerely”.
Americans tend to close even formal letters with “yours”, or ”Truly yours” which
is unusual in the U.K. in commercial correspondence although it is very
commonly used in a letter to a friend or an acquaintance, as the casual “Best
wishes”.
End up with your signature followed by your name and position in block letters.
The language of complaints
In any type of work you will definitely need to deal with complaints. It is important to
be able to tell how angry a person is when they complain, so that you can respond
in an appropriate way but as a general rule, your language should be more than
polite, otherwise you may lose a client.
The language of complaints:
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Terms like: disgusted, amazed, enraged have no place in business. Do not be
rude or personal. In most cases, correspondence between firms takes place
between employees in various departments.
Nothing is gained by being rude to the individual you are writing to, you may
antagonize someone who has probably had nothing to do with the error and rather
than getting the error corrected, they could become defensive and awkward to deal
with.
Leaders and managers are faced with complaints all the time. Here are some
typical responses:
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