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William Shakespeare

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This article is about the poet and playwright. For other persons of the
same name, see William Shakespeare (disambiguation)
</wiki/William_Shakespeare_(disambiguation)>. For other uses of
"Shakespeare", see Shakespeare (disambiguation)
</wiki/Shakespeare_(disambiguation)>.
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William Shakespeare
</wiki/File:Shakespeare.jpg>
The Chandos portrait </wiki/Chandos_portrait>, artist and authenticity
unconfirmed. National Portrait Gallery, London
</wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London>.
Born Baptised 26 April 1564 (birth date unknown)
Stratford-upon-Avon </wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon>, Warwickshire
</wiki/Warwickshire>, England </wiki/Kingdom_of_England>
Died 23 April 1616 (aged 52)
Stratford-upon-Avon </wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon>, Warwickshire
</wiki/Warwickshire>, England </wiki/Kingdom_of_England>
Occupation Playwright </wiki/Playwright>, poet </wiki/Poet>, actor
</wiki/Actor>
Literary movement English Renaissance theatre
</wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre>
Spouse(s) Anne Hathaway </wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(Shakespeare)>
(m. 1582â€€1616) Â«start: (1582)â€€end+1: (1617)Â»"Marriage: Anne Hathaway
</wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(Shakespeare)> to William Shakespeare" Location:
(linkback:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare)
Children Susanna Hall </wiki/Susanna_Hall>
Hamnet Shakespeare </wiki/Hamnet_Shakespeare>
Judith Quiney </wiki/Judith_Quiney>
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Signature </wiki/File:William_Shakepeare_Signature.svg>

*William Shakespeare* (baptised </wiki/Baptism> 26 April 1564; died 23
April 1616)^[nb 1] <#cite_note-dates-0> was an English
</wiki/English_people> poet </wiki/Poet> and playwright
</wiki/Playwright>, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the
English language </wiki/English_language> and the world's pre-eminent
dramatist.^[1] <#cite_note-1> He is often called England's national poet
</wiki/National_poet> and the "Bard of Avon".^[2] <#cite_note-2> ^[nb 2]
<#cite_note-national-cult-3> His surviving works, including some
collaborations </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_collaborations>, consist of about
38 plays </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays>,^[nb 3]
<#cite_note-exact-figures-4> 154 sonnets
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets>, two long narrative poems
</wiki/Narrative_poem>, and several other poems. His plays have been
translated into every major living language and are performed more often
than those of any other playwright.^[3] <#cite_note-5>

Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon
</wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon>. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway
</wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(Shakespeare)>, with whom he had three children:
Susanna </wiki/Susanna_Hall>, and twins Hamnet
</wiki/Hamnet_Shakespeare> and Judith </wiki/Judith_Quiney>. Between
1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London </wiki/London> as
an actor, writer, and part owner of a playing company
</wiki/Playing_company> called the Lord Chamberlain's Men
</wiki/Lord_Chamberlain%27s_Men>, later known as the King's Men
</wiki/King%27s_Men_(playing_company)>. He appears to have retired to

Stratford around 1613, where he died three years later. Few records of
Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable
speculation about such matters as his physical appearance
</wiki/Portraits_of_Shakespeare>, sexuality
</wiki/Sexuality_of_William_Shakespeare>, religious beliefs
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_religion>, and whether the works attributed to
him were written by others </wiki/Shakespeare_authorship_question>.^[4]
<#cite_note-Shapiro2005-6>

Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613.^[5]
<#cite_note-7> ^[nb 4] <#cite_note-play-dates-8> His early plays were
mainly comedies </wiki/Shakespearean_comedy> and histories
</wiki/Shakespearean_history>, genres he raised to the peak of
sophistication and artistry by the end of the 16th century. He then
wrote mainly tragedies </wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy> until about 1608,
including /Hamlet </wiki/Hamlet>/, /King Lear </wiki/King_Lear>/, and
/Macbeth </wiki/Macbeth>/, considered some of the finest works in the
English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances>, also known as romances, and
collaborated with other playwrights.

Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and
accuracy during his lifetime. In 1623, two of his former theatrical
colleagues published the First Folio </wiki/First_Folio>, a collected
edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now
recognised as Shakespeare's.

Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his
reputation did not rise to its present heights until the 19th century.
The Romantics </wiki/Romantics>, in particular, acclaimed Shakespeare's
genius, and the Victorians </wiki/Victorian_era> worshipped Shakespeare
with a reverence that George Bernard Shaw </wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw>
called "bardolatry </wiki/Bardolatry>".^[6] <#cite_note-9> In the 20th
century, his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new
movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly
popular today and are constantly studied, performed and reinterpreted in
diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.

Contents

[hide <#>]

* 1 Life <#Life>
o 1.1 Early life <#Early_life>
o 1.2 London and theatrical career <#London_and_theatrical_career>
o 1.3 Later years and death <#Later_years_and_death>
* 2 Plays <#Plays>
o 2.1 Performances <#Performances>
o 2.2 Textual sources <#Textual_sources>
* 3 Poems <#Poems>
o 3.1 Sonnets <#Sonnets>
* 4 Style <#Style>
* 5 Influence <#Influence>
* 6 Critical reputation <#Critical_reputation>
* 7 Speculation about Shakespeare <#Speculation_about_Shakespeare>
o 7.1 Authorship <#Authorship>
o 7.2 Religion <#Religion>
o 7.3 Sexuality <#Sexuality>
o 7.4 Portraiture <#Portraiture>
* 8 List of works <#List_of_works>
o 8.1 Classification of the plays <#Classification_of_the_plays>
o 8.2 Works <#Works>
* 9 See also <#See_also>

* 10 Notes <#Notes>
* 11 References <#References>
* 12 Bibliography <#Bibliography>
* 13 External links <#External_links>
* 14 Related information <#Related_information>

Life

Main article: Shakespeare's life </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_life>

Early life

William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare
</wiki/John_Shakespeare>, a successful glover </wiki/Glove> and alderman
</wiki/Alderman> originally from Snitterfield </wiki/Snitterfield>, and
Mary Arden </wiki/Mary_Shakespeare>, the daughter of an affluent
landowning farmer.^[7] <#cite_note-10> He was born in
Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual
birthdate remains unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, St
George's Day </wiki/St_George%27s_Day>.^[8] <#cite_note-11> This date,
which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholar's mistake, has
proved appealing to biographers, since Shakespeare died 23 April
1616.^[9] <#cite_note-12> He was the third child of eight and the eldest
surviving son.^[10] <#cite_note-13>

Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers
agree that Shakespeare probably was educated at the King's New School
</wiki/King_Edward_VI_School_Stratford-upon-Avon> in Stratford,^[11]
<#cite_note-14> a free school chartered in 1553,^[12] <#cite_note-15>
about a quarter-mile from his home. Grammar schools
</wiki/Grammar_school> varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but
the curriculum was dictated by law throughout England,^[13]
<#cite_note-16> and the school would have provided an intensive
education in Latin grammar </wiki/Latin_language> and the classics
</wiki/Classical_literature>.

</wiki/File:William_Shakespeares_birthplace,_Stratford-upon-Avon_26l2007.jpg>

</wiki/File:William_Shakespeares_birthplace,_Stratford-upon-Avon_26l2007.jpg>
John Shakespeare's house, believed to be Shakespeare's birthplace
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Birthplace>, in Stratford-upon-Avon
</wiki/Stratford-upon-Avon>.

At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway
</wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(Shakespeare)>. The consistory court
</wiki/Consistory_court> of the Diocese of Worcester
</wiki/Anglican_Diocese_of_Worcester> issued a marriage licence 27
November 1582. The next day two of Hathaway's neighbours posted bonds
guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage.^[14]
<#cite_note-17> The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste, since
the Worcester chancellor </wiki/Chancellor> allowed the marriage banns
</wiki/Banns_of_marriage> to be read once instead of the usual three
times,^[15] <#cite_note-18> and six months after the marriage Anne gave
birth to a daughter, Susanna </wiki/Susanna_Hall>, baptised 26 May
1583.^[16] <#cite_note-19> Twins, son Hamnet </wiki/Hamnet_Shakespeare>
and daughter Judith </wiki/Judith_Quiney>, followed almost two years
later and were baptised 2 February 1585.^[17] <#cite_note-20> Hamnet
died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August
1596.^[18] <#cite_note-21>

After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces
until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592, and

scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare's "lost
years".^[19] <#cite_note-22> Biographers attempting to account for this
period have reported many apocryphal
<http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/apocryphal> stories. Nicholas Rowe
</wiki/Nicholas_Rowe_(dramatist)>, Shakespeareâ€€s first biographer,
recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London
to escape prosecution for deer poaching </wiki/Poaching>.^[20]
<#cite_note-23> Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his
theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.^[21]
<#cite_note-24> John Aubrey </wiki/John_Aubrey> reported that
Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster.^[22] <#cite_note-25> Some
20th-century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been
employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire
</wiki/Lancashire>, a Catholic landowner who named a certain "William
Shakeshafte" in his will.^[23] <#cite_note-26> No evidence substantiates
such stories other than hearsay <http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hearsay>
collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the
Lancashire area.^[24] <#cite_note-27>

London and theatrical career

"All the world's a stage,

and all the men and women merely players:

they have their exits and their entrances;

and one man in his time plays many parts..."

/As You Like It </wiki/As_You_Like_It>/, Act II, Scene 7, 139â€€42.^[25]
<#cite_note-28>

It is not known exactly when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary
allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays
were on the London stage by 1592.^[26] <#cite_note-29> He was well
enough known in London by then to be attacked in print by the playwright
Robert Greene </wiki/Robert_Greene_(16th_century)>:

...there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with
his /Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide/, supposes he is as
well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being
an absolute /Johannes factotum/, is in his own conceit the only
Shake-scene in a country.^[27] <#cite_note-30>

Scholars differ on the exact meaning of these words,^[28]
<#cite_note-31> but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of
reaching above his rank in trying to match university-educated writers,
such as Christopher Marlowe </wiki/Christopher_Marlowe>, Thomas Nashe
</wiki/Thomas_Nashe> and Greene himself.^[29] <#cite_note-32> The
italicised phrase parodying the line "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a
woman's hide" from Shakespeareâ€€s /Henry VI, part 3
</wiki/Henry_VI,_part_3>/, along with the pun "Shake-scene", identifies
Shakespeare as Greeneâ€€s target.^[30] <#cite_note-33>

Greeneâ€€s attack is the first recorded mention of Shakespeareâ€€s career in
the theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time
from the mid-1580s to just before Greeneâ€€s remarks.^[31] <#cite_note-34>
From 1594, Shakespeare's plays were performed only by the Lord
Chamberlain's Men </wiki/Lord_Chamberlain%27s_Men>, a company owned by a
group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading
playing company </wiki/Playing_company> in London.^[32] <#cite_note-35>
After the death of Queen Elizabeth </wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England> in
1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new king, James I

</wiki/James_I_of_England>, and changed its name to the King's Men
</wiki/King%27s_Men_(playing_company)>.^[33] <#cite_note-36>

In 1599, a partnership of company members built their own theatre on the
south bank of the Thames </wiki/Thames>, which they called the Globe
</wiki/Globe_Theatre>. In 1608, the partnership also took over the
Blackfriars indoor theatre </wiki/Blackfriars_Theatre>. Records of
Shakespeare's property purchases and investments indicate that the
company made him a wealthy man.^[34] <#cite_note-37> In 1597, he bought
the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place </wiki/New_Place>, and
in 1605, he invested in a share of the parish </wiki/Parish> tithes
</wiki/Tithes> in Stratford.^[35] <#cite_note-38>

Some of Shakespeare's plays were published in quarto
</wiki/Quarto_(binding)> editions from 1594. By 1598, his name had
become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages
</wiki/Title_page>.^[36] <#cite_note-39> Shakespeare continued to act in
his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616
edition of Ben Jonson </wiki/Ben_Jonson>'s /Works/ names him on the cast
lists for /Every Man in His Humour </wiki/Every_Man_in_His_Humour>/
(1598) and /Sejanus, His Fall </wiki/Sejanus_(play)>/ (1603).^[37]
<#cite_note-40> The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for
Jonsonâ€€s /Volpone </wiki/Volpone>/ is taken by some scholars as a sign
that his acting career was nearing its end.^[38] <#cite_note-41> The
First Folio </wiki/First_Folio> of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as
one of "the Principal Actors in all these Plays", some of which were
first staged after /Volpone/, although we cannot know for certain which
roles he played.^[39] <#cite_note-42> In 1610, John Davies of Hereford
</wiki/John_Davies_of_Hereford> wrote that "good Will" played "kingly"
roles.^[40] <#cite_note-43> In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that
Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet's father.^[41] <#cite_note-44>
Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in /As You Like It
</wiki/As_You_Like_It>/ and the Chorus in /Henry V
</wiki/Henry_V_(play)>/,^[42] <#cite_note-45> though scholars doubt the
sources of the information.^[43] <#cite_note-46>

Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford during his
career. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home
in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish </wiki/Parish> of St.
Helen's, Bishopsgate </wiki/Bishopsgate>, north of the River
Thames.^[44] <#cite_note-47> He moved across the river to Southwark
</wiki/Southwark> by 1599, the year his company constructed the Globe
Theatre there.^[45] <#cite_note-48> By 1604, he had moved north of the
river again, to an area north of St Paul's Cathedral
</wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral> with many fine houses. There he rented
rooms from a French Huguenot </wiki/Huguenot> called Christopher
Mountjoy, a maker of ladies' wigs and other headgear.^[46] <#cite_note-49>

Later years and death

Rowe was the first biographer to pass down the tradition that
Shakespeare retired to Stratford some years before his death;^[47]
<#cite_note-autogenerated1-50> but retirement from all work was uncommon
at that time,^[48] <#cite_note-51> and Shakespeare continued to visit
London.^[47] <#cite_note-autogenerated1-50> In 1612 he was called as a
witness in a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy's
daughter, Mary.^[49] <#cite_note-52> In March 1613 he bought a gatehouse
</wiki/Gatehouse> in the former Blackfriars </wiki/Blackfriars,_London>
priory </wiki/Priory>;^[50] <#cite_note-53> and from November 1614 he
was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall
</wiki/John_Hall_(physician)>.^[51] <#cite_note-54>

</wiki/File:ShakespeareMonument_cropped.jpg>

</wiki/File:ShakespeareMonument_cropped.jpg>
Shakespeare's funerary monument
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_funerary_monument> in Stratford-upon-Avon.

After 1606â€€1607, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed
to him after 1613.^[52] <#cite_note-55> His last three plays were
collaborations, probably with John Fletcher
</wiki/John_Fletcher_(playwright)>,^[53] <#cite_note-56> who succeeded
him as the house playwright for the Kingâ€€s Men.^[54] <#cite_note-57>

Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616^[55] <#cite_note-58> and was survived
by his wife and two daughters. Susanna had married a physician, John
Hall, in 1607,^[56] <#cite_note-59> and Judith had married Thomas Quiney
</wiki/Thomas_Quiney>, a vintner </wiki/Vintner>, two months before
Shakespeareâ€€s death.^[57] <#cite_note-60>

In his will, Shakespeare left the bulk of his large estate to his elder
daughter Susanna.^[58] <#cite_note-61> The terms instructed that she
pass it down intact to "the first son of her body".^[59] <#cite_note-62>
The Quineys had three children, all of whom died without marrying.^[60]
<#cite_note-63> The Halls had one child, Elizabeth, who married twice
but died without children in 1670, ending Shakespeareâ€€s direct
line.^[61] <#cite_note-64> Shakespeare's will scarcely mentions his
wife, Anne, who was probably entitled to one third of his estate
automatically.^[62] <#cite_note-65> He did make a point, however, of
leaving her "my second best bed", a bequest that has led to much
speculation.^[63] <#cite_note-66> Some scholars see the bequest as an
insult to Anne, whereas others believe that the second-best bed would
have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance.^[64]
<#cite_note-67>

Shakespeare was buried in the chancel </wiki/Chancel> of the Holy
Trinity Church </wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church,_Stratford-upon-Avon> two days
after his death.^[65] <#cite_note-68> The epitaph carved into the stone
slab covering his grave includes a curse </wiki/Curse> against moving
his bones, which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church
in 2008:^[66] <#cite_note-69>

</wiki/File:Shakespeare_grave_-Stratford-upon-Avon_-3June2007.jpg>
</wiki/File:Shakespeare_grave_-Stratford-upon-Avon_-3June2007.jpg>
Shakespeare's grave.

/Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare,/
/To digg the dvst encloased heare./
/Bleste be ye man yt spares thes stones,/
/And cvrst be he yt moves my bones./^[67] <#cite_note-70>

Sometime before 1623, a funerary monument
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_funerary_monument> was erected in his memory on
the north wall, with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing. Its
plaque compares him to Nestor </wiki/Nestor_(mythology)>, Socrates
</wiki/Socrates>, and Virgil </wiki/Virgil>.^[68] <#cite_note-71> In
1623, in conjunction with the publication of the First Folio
</wiki/First_Folio>, the Droeshout engraving </wiki/Droeshout_engraving>
was published.^[69] <#cite_note-NPG2006-72>

Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials
</wiki/Memorials_to_William_Shakespeare> around the world, including
funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral </wiki/Southwark_Cathedral> and
Poet's Corner </wiki/Poet%27s_Corner> in Westminster Abbey
</wiki/Westminster_Abbey>.

Plays

Main articles: Shakespeare's plays </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays> and
Shakespeare's collaborations </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_collaborations>

Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at
some point, and critics agree that Shakespeare did the same, mostly
early and late in his career.^[70] <#cite_note-73> Some attributions,
such as /Titus Andronicus </wiki/Titus_Andronicus>/ and the early
history plays, remain controversial, while /The Two Noble Kinsmen
</wiki/The_Two_Noble_Kinsmen>/ and the lost /Cardenio </wiki/Cardenio>/
have well-attested contemporary documentation. Textual evidence also
supports the view that several of the plays were revised by other
writers after their original composition.

The first recorded works of Shakespeare are /Richard III
</wiki/Richard_III_(play)>/ and the three parts of /Henry VI
</wiki/Henry_VI,_Part_1>/, written in the early 1590s during a vogue for
historical drama. Shakespeare's plays are difficult to date,
however,^[71] <#cite_note-74> and studies of the texts suggest that
/Titus Andronicus </wiki/Titus_Andronicus>/, /The Comedy of Errors
</wiki/The_Comedy_of_Errors>/, /The Taming of the Shrew
</wiki/The_Taming_of_the_Shrew>/ and /The Two Gentlemen of Verona
</wiki/The_Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona>/ may also belong to Shakespeareâ€€s
earliest period.^[72] <#cite_note-75> His first histories
</wiki/Shakespearean_history>, which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of
Raphael Holinshed's </wiki/Raphael_Holinshed> /Chronicles of England,
Scotland, and Ireland/,^[73] <#cite_note-76> dramatise the destructive
results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a
justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty
</wiki/Tudor_dynasty>.^[74] <#cite_note-77> The early plays were
influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists, especially
Thomas Kyd </wiki/Thomas_Kyd> and Christopher Marlowe
</wiki/Christopher_Marlowe>, by the traditions of medieval drama, and by
the plays of Seneca </wiki/Seneca_the_Younger>.^[75] <#cite_note-78>
/The Comedy of Errors/ was also based on classical models, but no source
for /The Taming of the Shrew/ has been found, though it is related to a
separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk
story.^[76] <#cite_note-79> Like /The Two Gentlemen of Verona/, in which
two friends appear to approve of rape,^[77] <#cite_note-80> the
/Shrew's/ story of the taming of a woman's independent spirit by a man
sometimes troubles modern critics and directors.^[78] <#cite_note-81>

</wiki/File:Oberon,_Titania_and_Puck_with_Fairies_Dancing._William_Blake._c.1786
.jpg>

</wiki/File:Oberon,_Titania_and_Puck_with_Fairies_Dancing._William_Blake._c.1786
.jpg>
/Oberon, Titania and Puck with Fairies Dancing./ By William Blake
</wiki/William_Blake>, c. 1786. Tate Britain </wiki/Tate_Britain>.

Shakespeare's early classical and Italianate comedies, containing tight
double plots and precise comic sequences, give way in the mid-1590s to
the romantic atmosphere of his greatest comedies.^[79] <#cite_note-82>
/A Midsummer Night's Dream </wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream>/ is a
witty mixture of romance, fairy magic, and comic lowlife scenes.^[80]
<#cite_note-83> Shakespeare's next comedy, the equally romantic
/Merchant of Venice </wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice>/, contains a
portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock </wiki/Shylock>,
which reflects Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern
audiences.^[81] <#cite_note-84> The wit and wordplay of /Much Ado About
Nothing </wiki/Much_Ado_About_Nothing>/,^[82] <#cite_note-85> the
charming rural setting of /As You Like It </wiki/As_You_Like_It>/, and
the lively merrymaking of /Twelfth Night </wiki/Twelfth_Night>/ complete
Shakespeare's sequence of great comedies.^[83] <#cite_note-86> After the

lyrical /Richard II </wiki/Richard_II_(play)>/, written almost entirely
in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the
late 1590s, /Henry IV, parts 1 </wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_1>/ and /2
</wiki/Henry_IV,_Part_2>/, and /Henry V </wiki/Henry_V_(play)>/. His
characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between
comic and serious scenes, prose and poetry, and achieves the narrative
variety of his mature work.^[84] <#cite_note-87> This period begins and
ends with two tragedies: /Romeo and Juliet </wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet>/,
the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence, love, and
death;^[85] <#cite_note-88> and /Julius Caesar
</wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)>/â€€based on Sir Thomas North's
</wiki/Thomas_North> 1579 translation of Plutarch's </wiki/Plutarch>
/Parallel Lives </wiki/Parallel_Lives>/â€€which introduced a new kind of
drama.^[86] <#cite_note-89> According to Shakespearean scholar James
Shapiro, in /Julius Caesar/ "the various strands of politics, character,
inwardness, contemporary events, even Shakespeare's own reflections on
the act of writing, began to infuse each other".^[87] <#cite_note-90>

</wiki/File:Henry_Fuseli_rendering_of_Hamlet_and_his_father%27s_Ghost.JPG>
</wiki/File:Henry_Fuseli_rendering_of_Hamlet_and_his_father%27s_Ghost.JPG>
/Hamlet, Horatio, Marcellus, and the Ghost of Hamlet's Father./ Henry
Fuseli </wiki/Henry_Fuseli>, 1780â€€5. Kunsthaus ZÃ¼rich
</wiki/Kunsthaus_Z%C3%BCrich>.

In the early 17th century, Shakespeare wrote the so-called "problem
plays" </wiki/Problem_plays_(Shakespeare)> /Measure for Measure
</wiki/Measure_for_Measure>/, /Troilus and Cressida
</wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida>/, and /All's Well That Ends Well
</wiki/All%27s_Well_That_Ends_Well>/ and a number of his best known
tragedies </wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy>.^[88] <#cite_note-91> Many
critics believe that Shakespeare's greatest tragedies represent the peak
of his art. The titular hero of one of Shakespeare's most famous
tragedies, /Hamlet </wiki/Hamlet>/, has probably been discussed more
than any other Shakespearean character, especially for his famous
soliloquy </wiki/Soliloquy> "To be or not to be; that is the question
</wiki/To_be,_or_not_to_be>".^[89] <#cite_note-92> Unlike the
introverted Hamlet, whose fatal flaw is hesitation, the heroes of the
tragedies that followed, Othello and King Lear, are undone by hasty
errors of judgement.^[90] <#cite_note-93> The plots of Shakespeare's
tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws, which overturn
order and destroy the hero and those he loves.^[91] <#cite_note-94> In
/Othello </wiki/Othello>/, the villain Iago </wiki/Iago> stokes
Othello's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent
wife who loves him.^[92] <#cite_note-95> In /King Lear
</wiki/King_Lear>/, the old king commits the tragic error of giving up
his powers, initiating the events which lead to the murder of his
daughter and the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester.
According to the critic Frank Kermode, "the play offers neither its good
characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty".^[93]
<#cite_note-96> In /Macbeth </wiki/Macbeth>/, the shortest and most
compressed of Shakespeare's tragedies,^[94] <#cite_note-97>
uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth
</wiki/Lady_Macbeth_(Shakespeare)>, to murder the rightful king and
usurp the throne, until their own guilt destroys them in turn.^[95]
<#cite_note-98> In this play, Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to
the tragic structure. His last major tragedies, /Antony and Cleopatra
</wiki/Antony_and_Cleopatra>/ and /Coriolanus
</wiki/Coriolanus_(play)>/, contain some of Shakespeare's finest poetry
and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic
T. S. Eliot </wiki/T._S._Eliot>.^[96] <#cite_note-99>

In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances> or tragicomedy </wiki/Tragicomedy>
and completed three more major plays: /Cymbeline </wiki/Cymbeline>/,

/The Winter's Tale </wiki/The_Winter%27s_Tale>/ and /The Tempest
</wiki/The_Tempest>/, as well as the collaboration, /Pericles, Prince of
Tyre </wiki/Pericles,_Prince_of_Tyre>/. Less bleak than the tragedies,
these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s, but
they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic
errors.^[97] <#cite_note-100> Some commentators have seen this change in
mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare's part,
but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day.^[98]
<#cite_note-101> Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving
plays, /Henry VIII </wiki/Henry_VIII_(play)>/ and /The Two Noble Kinsmen
</wiki/The_Two_Noble_Kinsmen>/, probably with John Fletcher
</wiki/John_Fletcher_(playwright)>.^[99] <#cite_note-102>

Performances

Main article: Shakespeare in performance </wiki/Shakespeare_in_performance>

It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays.
The title page of the 1594 edition of /Titus Andronicus/ reveals that
the play had been acted by three different troupes.^[100]
<#cite_note-103> After the plagues </wiki/Black_Death> of 1592â€€3,
Shakespeare's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre
</wiki/The_Theatre> and the Curtain </wiki/Curtain_Theatre> in
Shoreditch </wiki/Shoreditch>, north of the Thames.^[101]
<#cite_note-104> Londoners flocked there to see the first part of /Henry
IV/, Leonard Digges </wiki/Leonard_Digges_(II)> recording, "Let but
Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest...and you scarce shall have a
room".^[102] <#cite_note-105> When the company found themselves in
dispute with their landlord, they pulled The Theatre down and used the
timbers to construct the Globe Theatre </wiki/Globe_Theatre>, the first
playhouse built by actors for actors, on the south bank of the Thames at
Southwark </wiki/Southwark>.^[103] <#cite_note-106> The Globe opened in
autumn 1599, with /Julius Caesar/ one of the first plays staged. Most of
Shakespeare's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe,
including /Hamlet/, /Othello/ and /King Lear/.^[104] <#cite_note-107>

</wiki/File:Globe_theatre_london.jpg>
</wiki/File:Globe_theatre_london.jpg>
The reconstructed Globe Theatre </wiki/Globe_Theatre>, London.

After the Lord Chamberlain's Men were renamed the King's Men
</wiki/King%27s_Men_(playing_company)> in 1603, they entered a special
relationship with the new King James </wiki/James_I_of_England>.
Although the performance records are patchy, the King's Men performed
seven of Shakespeare's plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31
October 1605, including two performances of /The Merchant of
Venice/.^[105] <#cite_note-108> After 1608, they performed at the indoor
Blackfriars Theatre </wiki/Blackfriars_Theatre> during the winter and
the Globe during the summer.^[106] <#cite_note-109> The indoor setting,
combined with the Jacobean </wiki/Jacobean_era> fashion for lavishly
staged masques </wiki/Masques>, allowed Shakespeare to introduce more
elaborate stage devices. In /Cymbeline/, for example, Jupiter
</wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)> descends "in thunder and lightning, sitting
upon an eagle: he throws a thunderbolt. The ghosts fall on their
knees."^[107] <#cite_note-110>

The actors in Shakespeare's company included the famous Richard Burbage
</wiki/Richard_Burbage>, William Kempe </wiki/William_Kempe>, Henry
Condell </wiki/Henry_Condell> and John Heminges </wiki/John_Heminges>.
Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of
Shakespeare's plays, including /Richard III/, /Hamlet/, /Othello/, and
/King Lear/.^[108] <#cite_note-111> The popular comic actor Will Kempe
played the servant Peter in /Romeo and Juliet/ and Dogberry

</wiki/Dogberry> in /Much Ado About Nothing/, among other
characters.^[109] <#cite_note-112> He was replaced around the turn of
the 16th century by Robert Armin </wiki/Robert_Armin>, who played roles
such as Touchstone </wiki/Touchstone_(As_You_Like_It)> in /As You Like
It/ and the fool in /King Lear/.^[110] <#cite_note-113> In 1613, Sir
Henry Wotton </wiki/Henry_Wotton> recorded that /Henry VIII/ "was set
forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony".^[111]
<#cite_note-WellsOxford1247-114> On 29 June, however, a cannon set fire
to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground, an
event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare
precision.^[111] <#cite_note-WellsOxford1247-114>

Textual sources

</wiki/File:Title_page_William_Shakespeare%27s_First_Folio_1623.jpg>
</wiki/File:Title_page_William_Shakespeare%27s_First_Folio_1623.jpg>
Title page of the First Folio </wiki/First_Folio>, 1623. Copper
engraving of Shakespeare by Martin Droeshout </wiki/Martin_Droeshout>.

In 1623, John Heminges </wiki/John_Heminges> and Henry Condell
</wiki/Henry_Condell>, two of Shakespeare's friends from the King's Men,
published the First Folio </wiki/First_Folio>, a collected edition of
Shakespeare's plays. It contained 36 texts, including 18 printed for the
first time.^[112] <#cite_note-115> Many of the plays had already
appeared in quarto </wiki/Book_size> versionsâ€€flimsy books made from
sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves.^[113]
<#cite_note-Oxfxxxiv-116> No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved
these editions, which the First Folio describes as "stol'n and
surreptitious copies".^[114] <#cite_note-117> Alfred Pollard
</wiki/Alfred_W._Pollard> termed some of them "bad quartos
</wiki/Bad_quarto>" because of their adapted, paraphrased or garbled
texts, which may in places have been reconstructed from memory.^[115]
<#cite_note-118> Where several versions of a play survive, each differs
from the other
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_plays#Shakespeare_and_the_textual_problem>. The
differences may stem from copying or printing
</wiki/Typesetting#Letterpress_era> errors, from notes by actors or
audience members, or from Shakespeare's own papers
</wiki/Foul_papers>.^[116] <#cite_note-119> In some cases, for example
/Hamlet/, /Troilus and Cressida </wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida>/ and
/Othello/, Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto
and folio editions. In the case of King Lear </wiki/King_Lear>, however,
while most modern additions do conflate them, the 1623 folio version is
so different from the 1608 quarto, that the /Oxford Shakespeare/ prints
them both, arguing that they cannot be conflated without
confusion.^[117] <#cite_note-120>

Poems

In 1593 and 1594, when the theatres were closed because of plague
</wiki/Bubonic_plague>, Shakespeare published two narrative poems on
erotic themes, /Venus and Adonis
</wiki/Venus_and_Adonis_(Shakespeare_poem)>/ and /The Rape of Lucrece
</wiki/The_Rape_of_Lucrece>/. He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley,
Earl of Southampton </wiki/Henry_Wriothesley,_3rd_Earl_of_Southampton>.
In /Venus and Adonis/, an innocent Adonis </wiki/Adonis> rejects the
sexual advances of Venus </wiki/Venus_(mythology)>; while in /The Rape
of Lucrece/, the virtuous wife Lucrece </wiki/Lucretia> is raped by the
lustful Tarquin </wiki/Sextus_Tarquinius>.^[118] <#cite_note-121>
Influenced by Ovid's </wiki/Ovid> /Metamorphoses
</wiki/Metamorphoses>/,^[119] <#cite_note-122> the poems show the guilt
and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust.^[120]

<#cite_note-123> Both proved popular and were often reprinted during
Shakespeare's lifetime. A third narrative poem, /A Lover's Complaint
</wiki/A_Lover%27s_Complaint>/, in which a young woman laments her
seduction by a persuasive suitor, was printed in the first edition of
the /Sonnets/ in 1609. Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote
/A Lover's Complaint/. Critics consider that its fine qualities are
marred by leaden effects.^[121] <#cite_note-124> /The Phoenix and the
Turtle </wiki/The_Phoenix_and_the_Turtle>/, printed in Robert Chester's
1601 /Love's Martyr/, mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix
</wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)> and his lover, the faithful turtle dove
</wiki/Turtle_dove>. In 1599, two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144
appeared in /The Passionate Pilgrim </wiki/The_Passionate_Pilgrim>/,
published under Shakespeare's name but without his permission.^[122]
<#cite_note-125>

Sonnets

Main article: Shakespeare's sonnets </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_sonnets>
</wiki/File:Sonnets1609titlepage.jpg>
</wiki/File:Sonnets1609titlepage.jpg>
Title page from 1609 edition of /Shake-Speares Sonnets/.

Published in 1609, the /Sonnets </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets>/ were
the last of Shakespeare's non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are
not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence
suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a
private readership.^[123] <#cite_note-126> Even before the two
unauthorised sonnets appeared in /The Passionate Pilgrim/ in 1599,
Francis Meres </wiki/Francis_Meres> had referred in 1598 to
Shakespeare's "sugred Sonnets among his private friends".^[124]
<#cite_note-127> Few analysts believe that the published collection
follows Shakespeare's intended sequence.^[125] <#cite_note-128> He seems
to have planned two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust
for a married woman of dark complexion (the "dark lady"), and one about
conflicted love for a fair young man (the "fair youth"). It remains
unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial
"I" who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth
</wiki/Wordsworth> believed that with the sonnets "Shakespeare unlocked
his heart".^[126] <#cite_note-129> The 1609 edition was dedicated to a
"Mr. W.H.", credited as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not
known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the
publisher, Thomas Thorpe </wiki/Thomas_Thorpe>, whose initials appear at
the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was,
despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the
publication.^[127] <#cite_note-130> Critics praise the /Sonnets/ as a
profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation,
death, and time.^[128] <#cite_note-131>

"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate..."

Lines from Shakespeare's /Sonnet 18 </wiki/Sonnet_18>/.^[129]
<#cite_note-132>

The production of Shakespeare's Sonnets was in some way influenced by
the Italian sonnet </wiki/Sonnet#Italian_.28Petrarchan.29_sonnet>: it
was popularised by Dante </wiki/Dante> and Petrarch </wiki/Petrarch> and
refined in Spain </wiki/Spain> and France </wiki/France> by DuBellay
</w/index.php?title=Joachim_DuBellay&action=edit&redlink=1> and Ronsard
</wiki/Pierre_Ronsard>.^[130]
<#cite_note-Bruce_Shakesperian_Sonnets-133> Shakespeare probably had
access to these last two authors, and read English poets as Richard

Field </wiki/Richard_Field_(printer)> and John Davies.^[130]
<#cite_note-Bruce_Shakesperian_Sonnets-133> The French and Italian poets
gave preference to the Italian form of sonnetâ€€two groups of four lines,
or quatrains </wiki/Quatrain> (always rhymed a-b-b-a-b-b-a) followed by
two groups of three lines, or tercets </wiki/Tercet> (variously rhymed
c-c-d e-e-d or c-c-d e-d-e)â€€which created a sonorous music in the vowel
</wiki/Vowel> rich Romance languages </wiki/Romance_languages>, but in
Shakespeare it is artificial and monotonous for the English language
</wiki/English_language>. To overcome this problem derived from the
difference of language, Shakespeare chose to follow the idiomatic rhyme
scheme used by Philip Sidney </wiki/Philip_Sidney> in his /Astrophel and
Stella </wiki/Astrophel_and_Stella>/ (published posthumously in 1591),
where the rhymes are interlaced in two pairs of couplets to make the
quatrain </wiki/Quatrain>.^[130]
<#cite_note-Bruce_Shakesperian_Sonnets-133>

Style

Main article: Shakespeare's style </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_style>

Shakespeare's first plays were written in the conventional style of the
day. He wrote them in a stylised language that does not always spring
naturally from the needs of the characters or the drama.^[131]
<#cite_note-134> The poetry depends on extended, sometimes elaborate
metaphors and conceits, and the language is often rhetoricalâ€€written for
actors to declaim rather than speak. The grand speeches in /Titus
Andronicus </wiki/Titus_Andronicus>/, in the view of some critics, often
hold up the action, for example; and the verse in /Two Gentlemen of
Verona </wiki/Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona>/ has been described as
stilted.^[132] <#cite_note-135>

Soon, however, Shakespeare began to adapt the traditional styles to his
own purposes. The opening soliloquy </wiki/Soliloquy> of /Richard III
</wiki/Richard_III_(play)>/ has its roots in the self-declaration of
Vice </wiki/The_Vice> in medieval drama. At the same time, Richardâ€€s
vivid self-awareness looks forward to the soliloquies of Shakespeare's
mature plays.^[133] <#cite_note-Brooke-136> No single play marks a
change from the traditional to the freer style. Shakespeare combined the
two throughout his career, with /Romeo and Juliet
</wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet>/ perhaps the best example of the mixing of the
styles.^[134] <#cite_note-137> By the time of /Romeo and Juliet/,
/Richard II </wiki/Richard_II_(play)>/, and /A Midsummer Night's Dream
</wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream>/ in the mid-1590s, Shakespeare had
begun to write a more natural poetry. He increasingly tuned his
metaphors and images to the needs of the drama itself.

</wiki/File:Pity.jpg>
</wiki/File:Pity.jpg>
/Pity </wiki/Pity_(William_Blake)>/ by William Blake
</wiki/William_Blake>, 1795, Tate Britain </wiki/Tate_Britain>, is an
illustration of two similes in /Macbeth/: "And pity, like a naked
new-born babe, / Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd / Upon
the sightless couriers of the air".

Shakespeare's standard poetic form was blank verse </wiki/Blank_verse>,
composed in iambic pentameter </wiki/Iambic_pentameter>. In practice,
this meant that his verse was usually unrhymed and consisted of ten
syllables to a line, spoken with a stress on every second syllable. The
blank verse of his early plays is quite different from that of his later
ones. It is often beautiful, but its sentences tend to start, pause, and
finish at the end of lines </wiki/End-stopping>, with the risk of
monotony.^[135] <#cite_note-138> Once Shakespeare mastered traditional
blank verse, he began to interrupt and vary its flow. This technique

releases the new power and flexibility of the poetry in plays such as
/Julius Caesar </wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)>/ and /Hamlet
</wiki/Hamlet>/. Shakespeare uses it, for example, to convey the turmoil
in Hamlet's mind:^[136] <#cite_note-Wright2004p868-139>

/Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting/
/That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay/
/Worse than the mutines in the bilboes. Rashlyâ€€/
/And prais'd be rashness for itâ€€let us know/
/Our indiscretion sometimes serves us well.../

/Hamlet/, Act 5, Scene 2, 4â€€8^[136] <#cite_note-Wright2004p868-139>

After /Hamlet/, Shakespeare varied his poetic style further,
particularly in the more emotional passages of the late tragedies. The
literary critic A. C. Bradley </wiki/A._C._Bradley> described this style
as "more concentrated, rapid, varied, and, in construction, less
regular, not seldom twisted or elliptical".^[137] <#cite_note-140> In
the last phase of his career, Shakespeare adopted many techniques to
achieve these effects. These included run-on lines </wiki/Enjambment>,
irregular pauses and stops, and extreme variations in sentence structure
and length.^[138] <#cite_note-McDxxxxii-141> In /Macbeth
</wiki/Macbeth>/, for example, the language darts from one unrelated
metaphor or simile to another: "was the hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed
yourself?" (1.7.35â€€38); "...pity, like a naked new-born babe/ Striding
the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd/ Upon the sightless couriers of
the air..." (1.7.21â€€25). The listener is challenged to complete the
sense.^[138] <#cite_note-McDxxxxii-141> The late romances, with their
shifts in time and surprising turns of plot, inspired a last poetic
style in which long and short sentences are set against one another,
clauses are piled up, subject and object are reversed, and words are
omitted, creating an effect of spontaneity.^[139] <#cite_note-142>

Shakespeare's poetic genius was allied with a practical sense of the
theatre.^[140] <#cite_note-143> Like all playwrights of the time,
Shakespeare dramatised stories from sources such as Petrarch
</wiki/Petrarch> and Holinshed </wiki/Holinshed>.^[141] <#cite_note-144>
He reshaped each plot to create several centres of interest and show as
many sides of a narrative to the audience as possible. This strength of
design ensures that a Shakespeare play can survive translation, cutting
and wide interpretation without loss to its core drama.^[142]
<#cite_note-145> As Shakespeareâ€€s mastery grew, he gave his characters
clearer and more varied motivations and distinctive patterns of speech.
He preserved aspects of his earlier style in the later plays, however.
In Shakespeare's late romances </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances>, he
deliberately returned to a more artificial style, which emphasised the
illusion of theatre.^[143] <#cite_note-146>

Influence

Main article: Shakespeare's influence </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_influence>
</wiki/File:Macbeth_consulting_the_Vision_of_the_Armed_Head.jpg>
</wiki/File:Macbeth_consulting_the_Vision_of_the_Armed_Head.jpg>
/Macbeth Consulting the Vision of the Armed Head./ By Henry Fuseli
</wiki/Henry_Fuseli>, 1793â€€94. Folger Shakespeare Library
</wiki/Folger_Shakespeare_Library>, Washington.

Shakespeare's work has made a lasting impression on later theatre and
literature. In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of
characterisation </wiki/Characterisation>, plot
</wiki/Plot_(narrative)>, language </wiki/Language>, and genre
</wiki/Genre>.^[144] <#cite_note-147> Until /Romeo and Juliet
</wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet>/, for example, romance had not been viewed as a

worthy topic for tragedy.^[145] <#cite_note-148> Soliloquies had been
used mainly to convey information about characters or events; but
Shakespeare used them to explore characters' minds.^[146]
<#cite_note-149> His work heavily influenced later poetry. The Romantic
poets </wiki/Romanticism> attempted to revive Shakespearean verse drama,
though with little success. Critic George Steiner </wiki/George_Steiner>
described all English verse dramas from Coleridge
</wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge> to Tennyson
</wiki/Alfred_Tennyson,_1st_Baron_Tennyson> as "feeble variations on
Shakespearean themes."^[147] <#cite_note-150>

Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy
</wiki/Thomas_Hardy>, William Faulkner </wiki/William_Faulkner>, and
Charles Dickens </wiki/Charles_Dickens>. The American novelist Herman
Melville's </wiki/Herman_Melville> soliloquies owe much to Shakespeare;
his Captain Ahab in /Moby-Dick </wiki/Moby-Dick>/ is a classic tragic
hero </wiki/Tragic_hero>, inspired by /King Lear/.^[148]
<#cite_note-151> Scholars have identified 20,000 pieces of music linked
to Shakespeare's works. These include two operas </wiki/Opera> by
Giuseppe Verdi </wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi>, /Otello </wiki/Otello>/ and
/Falstaff </wiki/Falstaff_(opera)>/, whose critical standing compares
with that of the source plays.^[149] <#cite_note-152> Shakespeare has
also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the
Pre-Raphaelites </wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood>. The Swiss Romantic
artist Henry Fuseli </wiki/Henry_Fuseli>, a friend of William Blake
</wiki/William_Blake>, even translated /Macbeth/ into German.^[150]
<#cite_note-153> The psychoanalyst </wiki/Psychoanalyst> Sigmund Freud
</wiki/Sigmund_Freud> drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular
that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.

In Shakespeare's day, English grammar, spelling and pronunciation were
less standardised than they are now,^[151] <#cite_note-154> and his use
of language helped shape modern English.^[152] <#cite_note-155> Samuel
Johnson </wiki/Samuel_Johnson> quoted him more often than any other
author in his /A Dictionary of the English Language
</wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language>/, the first serious work of
its type.^[153] <#cite_note-156> Expressions such as "with bated breath"
(/Merchant of Venice/) and "a foregone conclusion" (/Othello/) have
found their way into everyday English speech.^[154] <#cite_note-157>

Critical reputation

Main articles: Shakespeare's reputation
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_reputation> and Timeline of Shakespeare criticism
</wiki/Timeline_of_Shakespeare_criticism>

"He was not of an age, but for all time."

Ben Jonson </wiki/Ben_Jonson>^[155] <#cite_note-158>

Shakespeare was never revered in his lifetime, but he received his share
of praise.^[156] <#cite_note-159> In 1598, the cleric and author Francis
Meres </wiki/Francis_Meres> singled him out from a group of English
writers as "the most excellent" in both comedy and tragedy.^[157]
<#cite_note-160> And the authors of the /Parnassus/ plays at St John's
College, Cambridge </wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge>, numbered him
with Chaucer </wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer>, Gower </wiki/John_Gower> and
Spenser </wiki/Edmund_Spenser>.^[158] <#cite_note-161> In the First
Folio </wiki/First_Folio>, Ben Jonson </wiki/Ben_Jonson> called
Shakespeare the "Soul of the age, the applause, delight, the wonder of
our stage", though he had remarked elsewhere that "Shakespeare wanted
art". He was also recognised highly by James I by making them his 'Kings
Men'.^[159] <#cite_note-162>

Between the Restoration </wiki/The_Restoration> of the monarchy in 1660
and the end of the 17th century, classical ideas were in vogue. As a
result, critics of the time mostly rated Shakespeare below John Fletcher
</wiki/John_Fletcher_(playwright)> and Ben Jonson
</wiki/Ben_Jonson>.^[160] <#cite_note-163> Thomas Rymer
</wiki/Thomas_Rymer>, for example, condemned Shakespeare for mixing the
comic with the tragic. Nevertheless, poet and critic John Dryden
</wiki/John_Dryden> rated Shakespeare highly, saying of Jonson, "I
admire him, but I love Shakespeare".^[161] <#cite_note-164> For several
decades, Rymer's view held sway; but during the 18th century, critics
began to respond to Shakespeare on his own terms and acclaim what they
termed his natural genius. A series of scholarly editions of his work,
notably those of Samuel Johnson </wiki/Samuel_Johnson> in 1765 and
Edmond Malone </wiki/Edmond_Malone> in 1790, added to his growing
reputation.^[162] <#cite_note-165> By 1800, he was firmly enshrined as
the national poet.^[163] <#cite_note-166> In the 18th and 19th
centuries, his reputation also spread abroad. Among those who championed
him were the writers Voltaire </wiki/Voltaire>, Goethe
</wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe>, Stendhal </wiki/Stendhal> and Victor
Hugo </wiki/Victor_Hugo>.^[164] <#cite_note-Grady2001b-167>

During the Romantic era </wiki/Romanticism>, Shakespeare was praised by
the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge
</wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge>; and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel
</wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel> translated his plays in the spirit of
German Romanticism </wiki/German_Romanticism>.^[165] <#cite_note-168> In
the 19th century, critical admiration for Shakespeare's genius often
bordered on adulation.^[166] <#cite_note-169> "That King Shakespeare,"
the essayist Thomas Carlyle </wiki/Thomas_Carlyle> wrote in 1840, "does
not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest,
gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible".^[167]
<#cite_note-170> The Victorians </wiki/Victorian_era> produced his plays
as lavish spectacles on a grand scale.^[168] <#cite_note-171> The
playwright and critic George Bernard Shaw </wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw>
mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry
</wiki/Bardolatry>". He claimed that the new naturalism
</wiki/Naturalism_(theatre)> of Ibsen's </wiki/Henrik_Ibsen> plays had
made Shakespeare obsolete.^[169] <#cite_note-172>

The modernist revolution in the arts during the early 20th century, far
from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of
the avant garde </wiki/Avant_garde>. The Expressionists
</wiki/German_expressionism> in Germany and the Futurists
</wiki/Futurism_(art)> in Moscow mounted productions of his plays.
Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht </wiki/Bertolt_Brecht>
devised an epic theatre </wiki/Epic_theatre> under the influence of
Shakespeare. The poet and critic T. S. Eliot </wiki/T._S._Eliot> argued
against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in fact made him truly
modern.^[170] <#cite_note-173> Eliot, along with G. Wilson Knight
</wiki/G._Wilson_Knight> and the school of New Criticism
</wiki/New_Criticism>, led a movement towards a closer reading of
Shakespeare's imagery. In the 1950s, a wave of new critical approaches
replaced modernism and paved the way for "post-modern
</wiki/Postmodernism>" studies of Shakespeare.^[171] <#cite_note-174> By
the eighties, Shakespeare studies were open to movements such as
structuralism </wiki/Structuralism>, feminism </wiki/Feminism>, New
Historicism </wiki/New_Historicism>, African American studies
</wiki/African_American_studies>, and queer studies
</wiki/Queer_studies>.^[172] <#cite_note-175> ^[173] <#cite_note-176>

Speculation about Shakespeare

Authorship

Main article: Shakespeare authorship question
</wiki/Shakespeare_authorship_question>

Around 150 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to emerge about
the authorship of the works attributed to him.^[174] <#cite_note-177>
Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon
</wiki/Francis_Bacon>, Christopher Marlowe </wiki/Christopher_Marlowe>,
and Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford
</wiki/Edward_de_Vere,_17th_Earl_of_Oxford>.^[175] <#cite_note-178>
Several "group theories" have also been proposed.^[176] <#cite_note-179>
Only a small minority of academics believe there is reason to question
the traditional attribution,^[177] <#cite_note-180> but interest in the
subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory </wiki/Oxfordian_theory>,
continues into the 21st century.^[178] <#cite_note-Kathman_a-181>

Religion

Main article: Shakespeare's religion </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_religion>

Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare's family were Catholics
</wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church>, at a time when Catholic practice was
against the law.^[179] <#cite_note-182> Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden
</wiki/Mary_Shakespeare>, certainly came from a pious Catholic family.
The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by
John Shakespeare </wiki/John_Shakespeare>, found in 1757 in the rafters
of his former house in Henley Street. The document is now lost, however,
and scholars differ on its authenticity.^[180] <#cite_note-183> In 1591,
the authorities reported that John had missed church "for fear of
process for debt", a common Catholic excuse.^[181] <#cite_note-Cath-184>
In 1606, William's daughter Susanna was listed among those who failed to
attend Easter communion </wiki/Eucharist> in Stratford.^[181]
<#cite_note-Cath-184> Scholars find evidence both for and against
Shakespeare's Catholicism in his plays, but the truth may be impossible
to prove either way.^[182] <#cite_note-185>

Sexuality

Main article: Sexuality of William Shakespeare
</wiki/Sexuality_of_William_Shakespeare>

Few details of Shakespeare's sexuality are known. At 18, he married the
26-year-old Anne Hathaway </wiki/Anne_Hathaway_(Shakespeare)>, who was
pregnant. Susanna, the first of their three children, was born six
months later on 26 May 1583. However, over the centuries readers have
pointed to Shakespeare's sonnets as evidence of his love for a young
man. Others read the same passages as the expression of intense
friendship rather than sexual love.^[183] <#cite_note-186> At the same
time, the twenty-six so-called "Dark Lady" </wiki/The_Dark_Lady>
sonnets, addressed to a married woman, are taken as evidence of
heterosexual liaisons.^[184] <#cite_note-187>

Portraiture

Main article: Portraits of Shakespeare </wiki/Portraits_of_Shakespeare>

There is no written description of Shakespeare's physical appearance and
no evidence that he ever commissioned a portrait, so the Droeshout
engraving </wiki/Droeshout_engraving>, which Ben Jonson approved of as a

good likeness,^[185] <#cite_note-Cooper-188> and his Stratford monument
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_funeral_monument> provide the best evidence of
his appearance. From the 18th century, the desire for authentic
Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures
depicted Shakespeare. That demand also led to the production of several
fake portraits, as well as misattributions, repaintings and relabelling
of portraits of other people.^[186] <#cite_note-Pressly1993-189> ^[187]
<#cite_note-Piper-190>

List of works

Further information: List of Shakespeare's works
</wiki/List_of_Shakespeare%27s_works> and Chronology of Shakespeare
plays </wiki/Chronology_of_Shakespeare_plays>

Classification of the plays

</wiki/File:Gilbert_WShakespeares_Plays.jpg>
</wiki/File:Gilbert_WShakespeares_Plays.jpg>
/The Plays of William Shakespeare/. By Sir John Gilbert
</wiki/John_Gilbert_(painter)>, 1849.

Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio
</wiki/First_Folio> of 1623, listed below according to their folio
classification as comedies </wiki/Shakespearean_comedy>, histories
</wiki/Shakespearean_history> and tragedies
</wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy>.^[188] <#cite_note-191> Two plays not
included in the First Folio, /The Two Noble Kinsmen
</wiki/The_Two_Noble_Kinsmen>/ and /Pericles, Prince of Tyre
</wiki/Pericles,_Prince_of_Tyre>/, are now accepted as part of the
canon, with scholars agreed that Shakespeare made a major contribution
to their composition.^[189] <#cite_note-Kathman_b-192> No Shakespearean
poems were included in the First Folio.

In the late 19th century, Edward Dowden </wiki/Edward_Dowden> classified
four of the late comedies as romances
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_late_romances>, and though many scholars prefer
to call them /tragicomedies/ </wiki/Tragicomedy>, his term is often
used.^[190] <#cite_note-193> These plays and the associated /Two Noble
Kinsmen/ are marked with an asterisk (*) below. In 1896, Frederick S.
Boas </wiki/Frederick_S._Boas> coined the term "problem plays
</wiki/Problem_plays>" to describe four plays: /All's Well That Ends
Well </wiki/All%27s_Well_That_Ends_Well>/, /Measure for Measure
</wiki/Measure_for_Measure>/, /Troilus and Cressida
</wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida>/ and /Hamlet </wiki/Hamlet>/.^[191]
<#cite_note-194> "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be
strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may therefore
borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them
together as Shakespeare's problem plays."^[192] <#cite_note-195> The
term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use,
though /Hamlet/ is definitively classed as a tragedy.^[193]
<#cite_note-196> The other problem plays are marked below with a double
dagger (â€¡).

Plays thought to be only partly written by Shakespeare are marked with a
dagger (â€ ) below. Other works occasionally attributed to him are listed
as apocrypha.

Works

Comedies

Main article: Shakespearean comedy </wiki/Shakespearean_comedy>

* /All's Well That Ends Well </wiki/All%27s_Well_That_Ends_Well>/â€¡
* /As You Like It </wiki/As_You_Like_It>/
* /The Comedy of Errors </wiki/The_Comedy_of_Errors>/
* /Love's Labour's Lost </wiki/Love%27s_Labour%27s_Lost>/
* /Measure for Measure </wiki/Measure_for_Measure>/â€¡
* /The Merchant of Venice </wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice>/
* /The Merry Wives of Windsor </wiki/The_Merry_Wives_of_Windsor>/
* /A Midsummer Night's Dream </wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream>/
* /Much Ado About Nothing </wiki/Much_Ado_About_Nothing>/
* /Pericles, Prince of Tyre </wiki/Pericles,_Prince_of_Tyre>/*â€
* /The Taming of the Shrew </wiki/The_Taming_of_the_Shrew>/
* /The Tempest </wiki/The_Tempest>/*
* /Twelfth Night </wiki/Twelfth_Night>/
* /The Two Gentlemen of Verona </wiki/The_Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona>/
* /The Two Noble Kinsmen </wiki/The_Two_Noble_Kinsmen>/*â€
* /The Winter's Tale </wiki/The_Winter%27s_Tale>/*

Histories

Main article: Shakespearean history </wiki/Shakespearean_history>

* /King John </wiki/The_Life_and_Death_of_King_John>/
* /Richard II </wiki/Richard_II_(play)>/
* /Henry IV, part 1 </wiki/Henry_IV,_part_1>/
* /Henry IV, part 2 </wiki/Henry_IV,_part_2>/
* /Henry V </wiki/Henry_V_(play)>/
* /Henry VI, part 1 </wiki/Henry_VI,_part_1>/â€

* /Henry VI, part 2 </wiki/Henry_VI,_part_2>/
* /Henry VI, part 3 </wiki/Henry_VI,_part_3>/
* /Richard III </wiki/Richard_III_(play)>/
* /Henry VIII </wiki/Henry_VIII_(play)>/â€

Tragedies

Main article: Shakespearean tragedy </wiki/Shakespearean_tragedy>

* /Romeo and Juliet </wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet>/
* /Coriolanus </wiki/Coriolanus_(play)>/
* /Titus Andronicus </wiki/Titus_Andronicus>/â€

* /Timon of Athens </wiki/Timon_of_Athens>/â€

* /Julius Caesar </wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)>/
* /Macbeth </wiki/Macbeth>/â€

* /Hamlet </wiki/Hamlet>/
* /Troilus and Cressida </wiki/Troilus_and_Cressida>/â€¡
* /King Lear </wiki/King_Lear>/
* /Othello </wiki/Othello>/
* /Antony and Cleopatra </wiki/Antony_and_Cleopatra>/
* /Cymbeline </wiki/Cymbeline>/*

Poems

* /Shakespeare's Sonnets </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets>/
* /Venus and Adonis </wiki/Venus_and_Adonis_(Shakespeare_poem)>/

* /The Rape of Lucrece </wiki/The_Rape_of_Lucrece>/
* /The Passionate Pilgrim </wiki/The_Passionate_Pilgrim>/^[nb 5]
<#cite_note-Passionate-Pilgrim-197>
* /The Phoenix and the Turtle </wiki/The_Phoenix_and_the_Turtle>/
* /A Lover's Complaint </wiki/A_Lover%27s_Complaint>/

Lost plays

* /Love's Labour's Won </wiki/Love%27s_Labour%27s_Won>/
* /Cardenio </wiki/Cardenio>/â€

Apocrypha

Main article: Shakespeare Apocrypha </wiki/Shakespeare_Apocrypha>

* /Arden of Faversham </wiki/Arden_of_Faversham>/
* /The Birth of Merlin </wiki/The_Birth_of_Merlin>/
* /Locrine </wiki/Locrine>/
* /The London Prodigal </wiki/The_London_Prodigal>/
* /The Puritan </wiki/The_Puritan>/
* /The Second Maiden's Tragedy </wiki/The_Second_Maiden%27s_Tragedy>/
* /Sir John Oldcastle </wiki/Sir_John_Oldcastle>/
* /Thomas Lord Cromwell </wiki/Thomas_Lord_Cromwell>/
* /A Yorkshire Tragedy </wiki/A_Yorkshire_Tragedy>/
* /Edward III </wiki/Edward_III_(play)>/
* /Sir Thomas More </wiki/Sir_Thomas_More_(play)>/

[show <#>]v </wiki/Template:Earlybard>â€€*Â·*â€€d
</wiki/Template_talk:Earlybard>â€€*Â·*â€€e
<http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Earlybard&action=edit>Early
editions of *William Shakespeare*'s works
*Folios and Quartos </wiki/Early_texts_of_Shakespeare%27s_works>*
Foul papers </wiki/Foul_papers> â€¢ Quarto </wiki/Quarto> â€¢ Folio
</wiki/Folio_(printing)> â€¢ Bad quarto </wiki/Bad_quarto> â€¢ First Quarto
</wiki/First_Quarto> â€¢ First Folio </wiki/First_Folio> â€¢ Second Folio
</wiki/Second_Folio> â€¢ False Folio </wiki/False_Folio>
*Early editors </wiki/Shakespeare%27s_editors>*
John Heminges </wiki/John_Heminges> â€¢ Henry Condell
</wiki/Henry_Condell> â€¢ Edward Knight
</w/index.php?title=Edward_Knight_(Shakespeare)&action=edit&redlink=1> â€¢
John Leason </w/index.php?title=John_Leason&action=edit&redlink=1>
*Publishers*
Robert Allot </wiki/Robert_Allot> â€¢ William Aspley
</wiki/William_Aspley> â€¢ John Benson </wiki/John_Benson_(publisher)> â€¢
Edward Blount </wiki/Edward_Blount> â€¢ Cuthbert Burby
</wiki/Cuthbert_Burby> â€¢ Nathaniel Butter </wiki/Nathaniel_Butter> â€¢
Philip Chetwinde </wiki/Philip_Chetwinde> â€¢ Richard Hawkins
</wiki/Richard_Hawkins_(publisher)> â€¢ Henry Herringman
</wiki/Henry_Herringman> â€¢ William Leake </wiki/William_Leake> â€¢ Richard
Meighen </wiki/Richard_Meighen> â€¢ Thomas Millington
</wiki/Thomas_Millington> â€¢ Thomas Pavier </wiki/Thomas_Pavier> â€¢ John
Smethwick </wiki/John_Smethwick> â€¢ Thomas Thorpe </wiki/Thomas_Thorpe> â€¢
Thomas Walkley </wiki/Thomas_Walkley> â€¢ John Waterson
</wiki/John_Waterson> â€¢ Andrew Wise </wiki/Andrew_Wise>
*Printers*
Edward Allde </wiki/Edward_Allde> â€¢ Thomas Cotes </wiki/Thomas_Cotes> â€¢
Thomas Creede </wiki/Thomas_Creede> â€¢ George Eld </wiki/George_Eld> â€¢
Richard Field </wiki/Richard_Field_(printer)> â€¢ William Jaggard
</wiki/William_Jaggard> â€¢ Augustine Matthews </wiki/Augustine_Matthews>
â€¢ Nicholas Okes </wiki/Nicholas_Okes> â€¢ Peter Short

</wiki/Peter_Short_(printer)> â€¢ Valentine Simmes
</wiki/Valentine_Simmes> â€¢ William Stansby </wiki/William_Stansby>

See also

</wiki/File:Quill_and_ink.svg> /*Poetry portal </wiki/Portal:Poetry>*/
</wiki/File:Shakespeare.jpg> /*Shakespeare portal
</wiki/Portal:Shakespeare>*/

* World Shakespeare Bibliography </wiki/World_Shakespeare_Bibliography>
* Wikipedia Books </wiki/Wikipedia:Books>: William Shakespeare
</wiki/Wikipedia:Books/William_Shakespeare>

Notes

1. *^ <#cite_ref-dates_0-0>* Dates follow the Julian calendar
</wiki/Julian_calendar>, used in England throughout Shakespeare's
lifespan, but with the start of year adjusted to 1 January (see
Old Style and New Style dates
</wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates>). Under the Gregorian
calendar </wiki/Gregorian_calendar>, adopted in Catholic countries
in 1582, Shakespeare died on 3 May (Schoenbaum 1987
<#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, xv).
2. *^ <#cite_ref-national-cult_3-0>* The "national cult" of
Shakespeare, and the "bard" identification, dates from September
1769, when the actor David Garrick </wiki/David_Garrick> organised
a week-long carnival at Stratford to mark the town council
awarding him the freedom </wiki/Freedom_of_the_City> of the town.
In addition to presenting the town with a statue of Shakespeare,
Garrick composed a doggerel verse, lampooned in the London
newspapers, naming the banks of the Avon as the birthplace of the
"matchless Bard" (McIntyre 1999 <#CITEREFMcIntyre1999>, 412â€€432).
3. *^ <#cite_ref-exact-figures_4-0>* The exact figures are unknown.
See Shakespeare's collaborations
</wiki/Shakespeare%27s_collaborations> and Shakespeare Apocrypha
</wiki/Shakespeare_Apocrypha> for further details.
4. *^ <#cite_ref-play-dates_8-0>* Individual play dates and precise
writing span are unknown. See Chronology of Shakespeare's plays
</wiki/Chronology_of_Shakespeare%27s_plays> for further details.
5. *^ <#cite_ref-Passionate-Pilgrim_197-0>* /The Passionate Pilgrim/,
published under Shakespeare's name in 1599 without his permission,
includes early versions of two of his sonnets, three extracts from
/Love's Labour's Lost/, several poems known to be by other poets,
and eleven poems of unknown authorship for which the attribution
to Shakespeare has not been disproved (Wells et al. 2005
<#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, 805)

References

1. *^ <#cite_ref-1>* Greenblatt 2005 <#CITEREFGreenblatt2005>, 11;
Bevington 2002 <#CITEREFBevington2002>, 1â€€3; Wells 1997
<#CITEREFWells1997>, 399.
2. *^ <#cite_ref-2>* Dobson 1992 <#CITEREFDobson1992>, 185â€€186
3. *^ <#cite_ref-5>* Craig 2003 <#CITEREFCraig2003>, 3.
4. *^ <#cite_ref-Shapiro2005_6-0>* Shapiro 2005
<#CITEREFShapiro2005>, xviiâ€€xviii; Schoenbaum 1991
<#CITEREFSchoenbaum1991>, 41, 66, 397â€€98, 402, 409; Taylor 1990
<#CITEREFTaylor1990>, 145, 210â€€23, 261â€€5
5. *^ <#cite_ref-7>* Chambers 1930 <#CITEREFChambers1930>, Vol. 1:
270â€€71; Taylor 1987 <#CITEREFTaylor1987>, 109â€€134.
6. *^ <#cite_ref-9>* Bertolini 1993 <#CITEREFBertolini1993>, 119.

7. *^ <#cite_ref-10>* Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 14â€€22.
9. *^ <#cite_ref-12>* Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 24,
296; Honan 1998 <#CITEREFHonan1998>, 15â€€16.
11. *^ <#cite_ref-14>* Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>,
62â€€63; Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 53; Wells et al. 2005
<#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, xvâ€€xvi
12. *^ <#cite_ref-15>* Baldwin 1944 <#CITEREFBaldwin1944>, 464.
13. *^ <#cite_ref-16>* Baldwin 1944 <#CITEREFBaldwin1944>, 164â€€84;
Cressy 1975 <#CITEREFCressy1975>, 28, 29.
15. *^ <#cite_ref-18>* Wood 2003 <#CITEREFWood2003>, 84; Schoenbaum
1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 78â€€79.
16. *^ <#cite_ref-19>* Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 93.
97â€€108; Rowe 1709 <#CITEREFRowe1709>.
23. *^ <#cite_ref-26>* Honigmann 1999 <#CITEREFHonigmann1999>, 1;
Wells et al. 2005 <#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, xvii
24. *^ <#cite_ref-27>* Honigmann 1999 <#CITEREFHonigmann1999>, 95â€€117;
Wood 2003 <#CITEREFWood2003>, 97â€€109.
25. *^ <#cite_ref-28>* Wells et al. 2005
<#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, 666
287, 292
27. *^ <#cite_ref-30>* Greenblatt 2005 <#CITEREFGreenblatt2005>, 213.
28. *^ <#cite_ref-31>* Greenblatt 2005 <#CITEREFGreenblatt2005>, 213;
Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 153.
29. *^ <#cite_ref-32>* Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 176.
31. *^ <#cite_ref-34>* Wells 2006 <#CITEREFWells2006>, 28; Schoenbaum
1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 144â€€46; Chambers 1930
<#CITEREFChambers1930>, Vol. 1: 59.
33. *^ <#cite_ref-36>* Chambers 1923 <#CITEREFChambers1923>, 208â€€209.
67â€€71.
35. *^ <#cite_ref-38>* Bentley 1961 <#CITEREFBentley1961>, 36.
36. *^ <#cite_ref-39>* Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 188;
Kastan 1999 <#CITEREFKastan1999>, 37; Knutson 2001
<#CITEREFKnutson2001>, 17
37. *^ <#cite_ref-40>* Adams 1923 <#CITEREFAdams1923>, 275
38. *^ <#cite_ref-41>* Wells 2006 <#CITEREFWells2006>, 28.
41. *^ <#cite_ref-44>* Rowe 1709 <#CITEREFRowe1709>.
42. *^ <#cite_ref-45>* Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 357; Wells
et al. 2005 <#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, xxii
44. *^ <#cite_ref-47>* Honan 1998 <#CITEREFHonan1998>, 121.
45. *^ <#cite_ref-48>* Shapiro 2005 <#CITEREFShapiro2005>, 122.
46. *^ <#cite_ref-49>* Honan 1998 <#CITEREFHonan1998>, 325; Greenblatt
2005 <#CITEREFGreenblatt2005>, 405.
47. ^ ^/*a*/ <#cite_ref-autogenerated1_50-0> ^/*b*/
<#cite_ref-autogenerated1_50-1> Ackroyd 2006
<#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 476.
48. *^ <#cite_ref-51>* Honan 1998 <#CITEREFHonan1998>, 382â€€83.
49. *^ <#cite_ref-52>* Honan 1998 <#CITEREFHonan1998>, 326; Ackroyd
2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 462â€€464.

55. *^ <#cite_ref-58>* Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 25, 296.
57. *^ <#cite_ref-60>* Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 292, 294.
8, 11, 104; Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 296.
7, 9, 13; Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 289, 318â€€19.
62. *^ <#cite_ref-65>* Charles Knight
</wiki/Charles_Knight_(publisher)>, 1842, in his notes on /Twelfth
Night/, quoted in Schoenbaum 1991 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1991>, 275.
63. *^ <#cite_ref-66>* Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 483; Frye
2005 <#CITEREFFrye2005>, 16; Greenblatt 2005
<#CITEREFGreenblatt2005>, 145â€€6.
306â€€07; Wells et al. 2005
<#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, xviii
66. *^ <#cite_ref-69>* "Bard's 'cursed' tomb is revamped"
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/coventry_warwickshire/7422986.
stm>,
BBC News, 28 May 2008. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
69. *^ <#cite_ref-NPG2006_72-0>* National Portrait Gallery, Searching
for Shakespeare, NPG publications, 2006
70. *^ <#cite_ref-73>* Thomson, Peter, "Conventions of Playwriting".
in Wells & Orlin 2003 <#CITEREFWellsOrlin2003>, 49.
71. *^ <#cite_ref-74>* Frye 2005 <#CITEREFFrye2005>, 9; Honan 1998
<#CITEREFHonan1998>, 166.
159â€€61; Frye 2005 <#CITEREFFrye2005>, 9.
73. *^ <#cite_ref-76>* Dutton & Howard 2003
<#CITEREFDuttonHoward2003>, 147.
74. *^ <#cite_ref-77>* Ribner 2005 <#CITEREFRibner2005>, 154â€€155.
75. *^ <#cite_ref-78>* Frye 2005 <#CITEREFFrye2005>, 105; Ribner 2005
<#CITEREFRibner2005>, 67; Cheney 2004 <#CITEREFCheney2004>, 100.
76. *^ <#cite_ref-79>* Honan 1998 <#CITEREFHonan1998>, 136; Schoenbaum
1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 166.
77. *^ <#cite_ref-80>* Frye 2005 <#CITEREFFrye2005>, 91; Honan 1998
<#CITEREFHonan1998>, 116â€€117; Werner 2001 <#CITEREFWerner2001>,
96â€€100.
78. *^ <#cite_ref-81>* Friedman 2006 <#CITEREFFriedman2006>, 159.
80. *^ <#cite_ref-83>* Wood 2003 <#CITEREFWood2003>, 161â€€162.
81. *^ <#cite_ref-84>* Wood 2003 <#CITEREFWood2003>, 205â€€206; Honan
1998 <#CITEREFHonan1998>, 258.
83. *^ <#cite_ref-86>* Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 362â€€383.
84. *^ <#cite_ref-87>* Shapiro 2005 <#CITEREFShapiro2005>, 150;
Gibbons 1993 <#CITEREFGibbons1993>, 1; Ackroyd 2006
<#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 356.
85. *^ <#cite_ref-88>* Wood 2003 <#CITEREFWood2003>, 161; Honan 1998
<#CITEREFHonan1998>, 206.
86. *^ <#cite_ref-89>* Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 353, 358;
Shapiro 2005 <#CITEREFShapiro2005>, 151â€€153.
88. *^ <#cite_ref-91>* Bradley 1991 <#CITEREFBradley1991>, 85; Muir

2005 <#CITEREFMuir2005>, 12â€€16.
89. *^ <#cite_ref-92>* Bradley 1991 <#CITEREFBradley1991>, 94.
91. *^ <#cite_ref-94>* Bradley 1991 <#CITEREFBradley1991>, 40, 48.
92. *^ <#cite_ref-95>* Bradley 1991 <#CITEREFBradley1991>, 42, 169,
195; Greenblatt 2005 <#CITEREFGreenblatt2005>, 304.
93. *^ <#cite_ref-96>* Bradley 1991 <#CITEREFBradley1991>, 226;
Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 423; Kermode 2004
<#CITEREFKermode2004>, 141â€€2.
94. *^ <#cite_ref-97>* McDonald 2006 <#CITEREFMcDonald2006>, 43â€€46.
96. *^ <#cite_ref-99>* Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 444;
McDonald 2006 <#CITEREFMcDonald2006>, 69â€€70; Eliot 1934
<#CITEREFEliot1934>, 59.
97. *^ <#cite_ref-100>* Dowden 1881 <#CITEREFDowden1881>, 57.
98. *^ <#cite_ref-101>* Dowden 1881 <#CITEREFDowden1881>, 60; Frye
2005 <#CITEREFFrye2005>, 123; McDonald 2006
<#CITEREFMcDonald2006>, 15.
<#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, 1247, 1279
<#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, xx
<#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, xxi
103. *^ <#cite_ref-106>* Foakes 1990 <#CITEREFFoakes1990>, 6; Shapiro
2005 <#CITEREFShapiro2005>, 125â€€31.
104. *^ <#cite_ref-107>* Foakes 1990 <#CITEREFFoakes1990>, 6; Nagler
1958 <#CITEREFNagler1958>, 7; Shapiro 2005 <#CITEREFShapiro2005>,
131â€€2.
<#CITEREFWellsTaylorJowettMontgomery2005>, xxii
106. *^ <#cite_ref-109>* Foakes 1990 <#CITEREFFoakes1990>, 33.
107. *^ <#cite_ref-110>* Ackroyd 2006 <#CITEREFAckroyd2006>, 454;
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108. *^ <#cite_ref-111>* Ringler 1997 <#CITEREFRingler1997>, 127.
109. *^ <#cite_ref-112>* Schoenbaum 1987 <#CITEREFSchoenbaum1987>, 210;
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110. *^ <#cite_ref-113>* Shapiro 2005 <#CITEREFShapiro2005>, 247â€€9.
111. ^ ^/*a*/ <#cite_ref-WellsOxford1247_114-0> ^/*b*/
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113. *^ <#cite_ref-Oxfxxxiv_116-0>* Wells et al. 2005
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114. *^ <#cite_ref-117>* Pollard 1909 <#CITEREFPollard1909>, xi.
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116. *^ <#cite_ref-119>* Bowers 1955 <#CITEREFBowers1955>, 8â€€10; Wells
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118. *^ <#cite_ref-121>* Rowe 2006 <#CITEREFRowe2006>, 21.
119. *^ <#cite_ref-122>* Frye 2005 <#CITEREFFrye2005>, 288.
120. *^ <#cite_ref-123>* Rowe 2006 <#CITEREFRowe2006>, 3, 21.
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122. *^ <#cite_ref-125>* Rowe 2006 <#CITEREFRowe2006>, 1; Honan 1998
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123. *^ <#cite_ref-126>* Wood 2003 <#CITEREFWood2003>, 178; Schoenbaum
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126. *^ <#cite_ref-129>* Honan 1998 <#CITEREFHonan1998>, 180;
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128. *^ <#cite_ref-131>* Wood 2003 <#CITEREFWood2003>, 177.
129. *^ <#cite_ref-132>* Shakespeare 1914 <#CITEREFShakespeare1914>.
130. ^ ^/*a*/ <#cite_ref-Bruce_Shakesperian_Sonnets_133-0> ^/*b*/
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<#cite_ref-Bruce_Shakesperian_Sonnets_133-2> Bruce MacEvoy.
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131. *^ <#cite_ref-134>* Clemen 2005a <#CITEREFClemen2005a>, 150.
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133. *^ <#cite_ref-Brooke_136-0>* Brooke, Nicholas, "Language and
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134. *^ <#cite_ref-137>* Clemen 2005b <#CITEREFClemen2005b>, 63.
135. *^ <#cite_ref-138>* Frye 2005 <#CITEREFFrye2005>, 185.
136. ^ ^/*a*/ <#cite_ref-Wright2004p868_139-0> ^/*b*/
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868.
138. ^ ^/*a*/ <#cite_ref-McDxxxxii_141-0> ^/*b*/
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139. *^ <#cite_ref-142>* McDonald 2006 <#CITEREFMcDonald2006>, 36, 39, 75.
140. *^ <#cite_ref-143>* Gibbons 1993 <#CITEREFGibbons1993>, 4.
141. *^ <#cite_ref-144>* Gibbons 1993 <#CITEREFGibbons1993>, 1â€€4.
142. *^ <#cite_ref-145>* Gibbons 1993 <#CITEREFGibbons1993>, 1â€€7, 15.
143. *^ <#cite_ref-146>* McDonald 2006 <#CITEREFMcDonald2006>, 13;
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144. *^ <#cite_ref-147>* Chambers 1944 <#CITEREFChambers1944>, 35.
145. *^ <#cite_ref-148>* Levenson 2000 <#CITEREFLevenson2000>, 49â€€50.
146. *^ <#cite_ref-149>* Clemen 1987 <#CITEREFClemen1987>, 179.
147. *^ <#cite_ref-150>* Steiner 1996 <#CITEREFSteiner1996>, 145.
148. *^ <#cite_ref-151>* Bryant 1998 <#CITEREFBryant1998>, 82.
149. *^ <#cite_ref-152>* Gross, John, "Shakespeare's Influence" in
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150. *^ <#cite_ref-153>* Paraisz 2006 <#CITEREFParaisz2006>, 130.
151. *^ <#cite_ref-154>* Cercignani 1981. <#CITEREFCercignani1981.>
152. *^ <#cite_ref-155>* Crystal 2001 <#CITEREFCrystal2001>, 55â€€65, 74.
153. *^ <#cite_ref-156>* Wain 1975 <#CITEREFWain1975>, 194.
154. *^ <#cite_ref-157>* Johnson 2002 <#CITEREFJohnson2002>, 12;
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155. *^ <#cite_ref-158>* Jonson 1996 <#CITEREFJonson1996>, 10.
156. *^ <#cite_ref-159>* Dominik 1988 <#CITEREFDominik1988>, 9; Grady
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157. *^ <#cite_ref-160>* Grady 2001b <#CITEREFGrady2001b>, 265; Greer
1986 <#CITEREFGreer1986>, 9.
158. *^ <#cite_ref-161>* Grady 2001b <#CITEREFGrady2001b>, 266.
159. *^ <#cite_ref-162>* Grady 2001b <#CITEREFGrady2001b>, 266â€€7.
161. *^ <#cite_ref-164>* Dryden 1889 <#CITEREFDryden1889>, 71.
162. *^ <#cite_ref-165>* Grady 2001b <#CITEREFGrady2001b>, 270â€€27;
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163. *^ <#cite_ref-166>* Dobson 1992 <#CITEREFDobson1992> Cited by
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164. *^ <#cite_ref-Grady2001b_167-0>* Grady cites Voltaire's
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Apprenticeship/ (1795); Stendhal's two-part pamphlet /Racine et
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170. *^ <#cite_ref-173>* Grady 2001a <#CITEREFGrady2001a>, 22â€€6.
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172. *^ <#cite_ref-175>* Grady 2001a <#CITEREFGrady2001a>, 29.
173. *^ <#cite_ref-176>* Drakakis 1985 <#CITEREFDrakakis1985>, 16â€€17, 23â€€25
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175. *^ <#cite_ref-178>* Gibson 2005 <#CITEREFGibson2005>, 48, 72, 124.
176. *^ <#cite_ref-179>* McMichael & Glenn 1962
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177. *^ <#cite_ref-180>* Did He or Didnâ€€t He? That Is the Question
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180. *^ <#cite_ref-183>* Wood 2003 <#CITEREFWood2003>, 75â€€8; Ackroyd
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183. *^ <#cite_ref-186>* Casey <#CITEREFCasey>; Pequigney 1985
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