Support documents pertaining to the Educating Girls presentation

1. Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 1
Annotated Bibliography:
Educating Girls: an Overview
J. Anne Hagstrom
Prescott College

2. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 2
Akerlof, G. A., &Kranton, R. E. (2010). Identity economics: How our identities shape our
work, wages, and well-being. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
„Identity economics‟ adapts standard economic theories toinclude the identities of
individuals in 1) social categories, 2) norms and ideals, and 3) gains and losses in
identity utility. Identities typicallyinclude „insiders‟ and „outsiders,‟ where„insiders‟ buy
into and „outsiders‟ oppose the system. In order to improve academics and behavior,a
school must promote belonging for all students, effectively removing the option of being
an „outsider.‟ This requires broadening the definition of „insider,‟ to include diversity of
genders, ethnicities, ages, and socioeconomic statuses. Changing labels (fireman to fire
fighter, policeman to police officer) along with providing legal support of „insider‟
status to nontraditional workers (class action law suits against sexual
harassment/discrimination) can increase the number of men and women crossing into
nontraditional fields. Traditional responses to gender equality in schools have worked
with changing labels and some measure of „belonging,‟ but the insider/outsider structure
associated with patriarchal social norms maintains strong influence.
Bonomo, V. (2010, Summer). Gender matters in elementary education: Research-based
strategies to meet the distinctive learning needs of boys and girls. Educational Horizons,
88(4), 257-264. Retrieved from ERIC.(EJ895692)
Recent research into physical differences between the sexesis mentioned, including
multiple references to an earlier article published in the journal. Theresults echo
traditional stereotypes: boys‟ brains are better at math and science, while girls‟ brains
excel at reading, writing, and listening. Moreover, boys‟ and girls‟ brains develop at
different orders, times, and rates. Autonomic nervous system differences between the

3. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 3
sexes predict that boys should thrive in competitive environments while girls should not.
Strikingly, studies indicate that the ideal temperature for young men is 69 degrees
Fahrenheit; girls do best at 75 degrees. Table 3 identifies typical genetic differences
between girls and boys, including boys hearing 35% less than girls due to ear
construction, girls developing language and fine motor skills six years earlier than boys,
who develop targeting and spatial memory four years earlier than girls, differences in
ability to transition, relate to a teacher, and remember details, and in the structure of
interpersonal relationships. The article includes two lists of suggestions for adapting
lessons to provide forboys‟ and girls‟ learning needs, however, being aware of the
differences and then getting to know individual students seems a more practical way of
implementing any changes to the classroom and lessons.
Denith, A. (2008). Smart girls, hard-working girls, but not yet self-assured girls: The limits of
gender equity politics. Canadian Journal of Education, 31(1), 145-166. Retrieved from
ERIC. (EJ797189)
As recently as the 1990s, How Schools Shortchange Girls exposed “biased teaching
practices, curricular omissions, sexual harassment, unfair testing procedures, and limited
access to or lower participation of girls in certain school subjects and programs.” The
author interviewed students in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
(STEM) programs. The schools studied were in affluent communities, and girls‟ success
was on par with boys‟ in school and college placement. Over 50% of the girls described
their relationships with teachers and those teachers‟ skills as influential. Many
comments reflect a desire to like or enjoy the teacher because the subject can be difficult
or uninteresting; other students were willing to take the advanced class because of an

4. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 4
initial interest in the subject. The interviews indicated a link between performance and
self-worth, where girls judged lower grades as evidence of inability or lack of
intelligence. They felt that boys did not care about their GPAs and did not take lower
grades personally. More troubling, when comparing themselves to boys, the girls
commented that they do more work for the same achievements, and they expressed
concern that any difficulties they experienced would be attributed to gender – as an
innate quality, “a dumb girl who doesn‟t get computers” (p. 158) “I think girls have to
work harder to get acknowledged and to achieve. Guys are viewed as well rounded if
they take an AP course and do one sport. Girls take three AP classes and a sport and it is
viewed as normal” (p. 159) “Boys will be boys, right? If I lagged behind, people would
think I‟m not okay. It‟s the same with boys and teachers. Teachers seem willing to push
the boys more than they push the girls. Girls are just expected to be good” (p. 160).The
girls experienced their competition as other girls, believing there were limited spaces for
females in the schools and professions of their choice. Moreover, they wanted the
competition based on skills and not gender.While girls expressed spending more time on
their schoolwork than brothers or male classmates, I think rather than showing that boys
are more confident, it shows that girlslack an awareness of their achievements or
appropriate measures of success. If, in fact, schools are disproportionately
acknowledging boys, girls could absorb the unspoken message that they are not
measuring up even while being aware of the hypocrisy. At the same time, this points to
another facet of boys‟ underperformance, the realization that smaller efforts are
adequate; clearly assumptions about innate ability are damaging to both sexes. The
author concludes that individualism, competition, and personal entitlement are strongly

5. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 5
patriarchal and girls‟ attempts to fit into the system are ultimately detrimental.
Hembrow-Beach, R. (2011, September).Developing the girl as a leader. Retrieved from ERIC.
(ED524366)
This paper examines how all-girl schools support girls. Self-confidence has been
identified as a primary concern for girls; though girls in co-educational schools report
higher levels of engagement,they report lower levels of self-esteem. Low-
socioeconomic backgrounds further limit extracurricular activities known to boost
confidence. Girls‟ develop social-emotional skills at schools, but this area is neglected
in co-education; all-girls schools provide “exploration and community” (p. 31). While
boys see difficult material as a challenge and put in more effort, girls are more likely to
blame themselves and their abilities if a task is difficult, reducing their confidence and
efficiency. Girls School alumnae say that these schools encouraged self-confidence,
encouragement, leadership, and community, and believe their all-girls education was
superior, providing more opportunities for public-speaking, technology, science, math,
and writing as compared to co-ed schools. In Wales, primary school girls were viewed
as good students if they had typical girl behaviors, whether or not they were
academically successful. A study in Britain suggests that boys‟ disruptive behavior
gains them greater teacher access and encouragement, while diligent girls receive less
support. Girls in co-ed classrooms find boys‟ behavior more disruptivethan do other
boys; additionally, girls are seen as individuals without reference to gender, and are able
to assume all of the roles in the classroom. A study in Belgium underscores that single-
sex classrooms do not provide the same advantage as all-girl schools.Anecdotal
evidence suggests that all-girls K-8 educations develop the necessary skills for girls to

6. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 6
then be active leaders in co-educational high schools. It seems apparent to me that no
adjustment of public school education will match the positive effects of all-girls
education, but recognizing the separate needs of students is an important move.
Luik, P. (2009). Would boys and girls benefit from gender-specific educational software?
British Journal of Educational Technology, 42(1), 128-144.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01005.x
While some studies indicate that boys have a greater affinity for and skill with
computers, other studies find no significant differences between the genders. This study
examined differences in posttest scores of girls and boys in terms of several variables.
The data indicates that catering to girls‟ preferences may in fact lead to decreases in
their achievement. Instead, girls‟ scores correlated strongly with learner controls, while
boys‟ scores showed no difference. Boys‟ scores indicate a preference for graphics,
while girls‟ scores indicate these graphics should be as simple as possible. In conclusion
the author believes there are several things to keep in mind when designing software so
that it is optimally arranged for both genders.
Madigan, J. C. (2009). The education of girls and women in the United States: A historical
perspective. Advances in Gender and Education, 1, 11-13. Retrieved from the Montgomery
Center for Research in Child and Adolescent Development, http://www.mcrcad.org/
Madigan begins her summary of the history of education for women in the 1700s, noting
key years for legal changes. She states that coeducation began in the 1800s, at the same
time as single-sex schools were being established. However the movement West played
a role in making schools coeducational, as smaller populations made single-sex schools
impractical. Despite coeducational schools, vocational 'tracks' were pushed for girls, and

7. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 7
girls' occupational choices were essentially secretarial, nursing, teaching, or
motherhood. It was 1972 when Title IX made it illegal to discriminate on the basis of
sex, and 1974 introduced the Women's Educational Equality Act. More recently, in
2006, the US Department of Education amended Title IX to allow gender-separate
educational opportunities, viewed as a positive move for girls.
McMahon, L. (2009, Fall). Of the utmost importance to our country: Women, education, and
society, 1780-1820. Journal of the Early Republic, 29(3), 475-506. Retrieved from
Academic Search Premier.
This article discusses the historic motivations for allowing women equal access to
education, namely, to ensure educated citizens for the good of society. During this time
period (late 18th and early 19th century), women were primarily homemakers, mothers,
and wives; yet their education was promoted in order to control “the manners of a
nation” (p. 478). This push led to the establishment of many schools for women,
providing educations to “mostly white, middle- and upper-class women” (p. 483).
These schools advertised a more rigorous curriculum than „finishing schools‟and were
similar to male academies of the period. At this time it was acknowledged that women
were equally capable of intellectual pursuits and, many argued, better at rhetoric than
men. The concern turned to appropriate subjects for women, so as not to damage their
ability to care for family and home: they should be “useful and ornamental” (p. 494),
with complementary roles to those of men, in order to „balance‟ each other.This
emphasis was important, because many educated women became more vocal and public
figures interested in promoting equality in all aspects of life. This article reveals that
women‟s education has been a concern for nearly as long as America has existed.

8. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 8
Skelton, C. (2010, May). Gender and achievement: Are girls the "success stories" of restructured
education systems? Educational Review, 62(2), 131-142.doi:10.1080/00131910903469536
This article focuses on the British education system, but similar cultures and historical
symmetry make many of the points applicable to America. Skelton notes current
government and media accounts of girls out-performing boys on tests, and greater
numbers of girls graduating from high school and then attending college. According to
studies done in classrooms during the 1970s and 1980s, girls showed a lack of self-
confidence, and boys were assessed as 'more able' due to their relatively greater
assertiveness. Yet current studies find that girls are still anxious and less confident than
boys, despite the social belief in their "success." One perspective goes so far as to
describe the underachievement of boys as 'victimization' by girls. That is, because girls
are now winning, it must mean that boys are losing. Interestingly, teachers have
consistently rated boys as needing more time and attention. Even more striking are
indications that girls are "hard working," whereas boys have "innate if untapped
potential." The author concludes that girls will not have 'success' without increased
confidence and control, and that adjusting education to 'make up' for the perceived
decrease in boys' performance still fails to address fundamental gender stereotypes.
Wells, R. S., Seifert, T. A., Padgett, R. D., Park, S., &Umbach, P. D. (2011, January/February).
Why do more women than men want to earn a four-year degree? Exploring the effects of
gender, social origin, and social capital on educational expectations. The Journal of
Higher Education, 82(1), 1-32. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.
This study looked for concrete reasons that a greater percentage of women than men are
now attending college, particularly among racial/ethnic minorities. The data set was

9. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: EDUCATING GIRLS 9
sizeable, with 14,713 students. Previous research indicated that “educational attainment
is predicated on one‟s expectations of educational success” (p. 2). The study therefore
considered parents‟ early and peers‟ later influence (social capital) on students‟ beliefs
(valuing/expectation of higher education). In this study, women indicated higher levels
of social capital overall.Although historically a luxury, educating girls has become
sensible and necessary in the parents‟ view due to increased availability of work and
decreased stability of marriage. Studies suggest that parents now hold higher
expectations for daughters than for sons, and this study saw a stronger positive effect for
women relative to men. Parents are also less involved in sons‟ academic lives and have
lower expectations for academic achievement.As previous studies suggested, mothers‟
education had more influence on daughters, while fathers‟ education had more influence
on sons, certainly a concern given the rates of absent fathers among minorities. The
increasing gap between men and women is not a result, then, of girls‟ increasing
opportunities, but a breakdown in the support network for boys.