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Behavioral
Ecology
How evolution
shapes behavior
Optimality
Organisms behave to
maximize benefit and minimize
cost
Optimal Foraging
maximize nutritional benefits
minimize energetic/survival costs
Zach, 1978
Crows generally fly
5 meters high




Zach, 1978
Higher than 5 meters does not increase
the chance of the shell breaking
Benefits < Costs



Zach, 1978
Territory
Territory
Benefits: exclusive access to food,
mates
Costs: energy required to defend
Behavior, part 2
Reproductive
Behavior
Optimized Reproduction
maximize offspring
minimize energetic/survival costs
Energetic/survival costs are typically
unequal between males and females


   “Battle of the              vs
    Sexes”
Mate
Choice
Parental Investment Theory
The sex with the most energetic costs from parenting
  will be more selective
Which sex has
higher parental costs?
Birds
female produce large eggs
and may lay 50 to over 100%
of their body weight each
season
Mammals
only females can become
pregnant and lactate
Generally, females invest more
in eggs than males do in sperm
Females are usually more selective
Mate Choice causes
Sexual Selection

Intrasexual: traits that give a
  competitive advantage

Intersexual: traits that are preferred
  by the chooser sex
Intrasexual Selection
Intersexual Selection
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.




Number of mates                           Fig. 37.12

                  5




                  0
                      140                                                   150                                       160
                              Number of eyespots in tail feathers
Mating systems                              Jacana


    Polyandry: multiple males
    Polygyny: multiple females
    Promiscuous: multiple males & females
    Monogamy: one male, one female


Elephant seal                               Dunnock


                        Black vulture
Clumped food (fruit tree): Polygyny/Polyandry

Random/uniform food (insects): Monogamy
Social
behavior
From simple social groups………
…. To complex societies
Altruism
Behavior that benefits others
at a cost to the individual
Cost may be minor…
…or extreme!
Optimality
maximize benefit
minimize cost
So how could altruism evolve?
Reciprocity
“You scratch my back,
I’ll scratch yours.”
Vampire bats
Benefit = survival (as a recipient)
Cost = small amount of food loss
(as a donor)
Benefit > Cost in the long term
Kin Selection
Helping your relatives
"Would I lay down my life
to save my brother?
No, but I would to save two
brothers or eight cousins.”
-J.B.S. Haldane
Siblings: share 1/2 of your genes
Cousins: share 1/8 of your genes
Fig. 37.17                                      Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.




       Probability of helping (percent)   100


                                          80


                                          60


                                          40


                                          20


                                           0
                                                           0         1/8         1/4        1/2
                                                                   (cousin) (half-sibling) (full-sibling)
                                                              Degree of genetic relatedness
Belding’s ground squirrels
Benefit = protect relatives
who share genes
Cost = increased predation risk to self
Benefit > Cost if relatives near by
Behavior, part 2
Communication
Fig. 37.15




             Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.




                                                                            8                                                       8
                                                                            7                                                       7




                                                    Frequency (kilocycles




                                                                                                            Frequency (kilocycles
                                                                            6                                                       6




                                                        per second)




                                                                                                                per second)
                                                                            5                                                       5
                                                                            4                                                       4
                                                                            3                                                       3
                                                                            2                                                       2
                                                                            1                                                       1
                                                                            0                                                       0

                                                                                0.5 seconds                                             0.5 seconds
                                                                                   Eagle                                                  Leopard


 (a)                                          (b)
                                a: © S. Osolinski/OSF/Animals Animals-Earth Scenes

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Behavior, part 2