The term "cognition" refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations. The presentation discusses various cognitive processes; such as, cognition,concept,language,learning,memory,perception,sensory registration,thinking, etc.
2. Sensory Processes: Registration of sensory inputs
Transduction: Conversion of physical energy into electric voltage by
receptor cells (Receptor Potential)
Sensation: Identification of physical energy
Generator Potential (Nerve Impulse) : Transmission of nerve
impulse through afferent codes to the respective region of the brain
3. Vision: Structure and function of eye
Cornea
Pupil
Iris
Lens
Ciliary Muscles
Vitreous Humors
Retina (Cone and Rods)
Fovea Optic Disc
Occipital Lobe of the Neo-cortex
4. Hearing: Structure and function of ear
Pinna
Auditory canal
Eardrum (Tympani membrane)
Ossicles:
Malleus, Incus, Stapes
Oval window
Cochlea
Cochlear nerve
Temporal lobe of neo-cortex
5. Smell
Smell Receptors: reactive to chemical energy
Location of smell receptors: In the roots of nasal
passages leading from the nostrils to the throat
Olfactory bulb
6. Taste
Taste Receptors (Taste buds): Reactive to chemical energy
Location of Taste Buds : Mostly on the tongue; Some of them at the
back of mouth and in the throat,
Primary Tastes: Salty, Sour, Sweet and Bitter
7. Location
Tip and sides of the
tongue
Sides of the tongue
Tip of the tongue
Back of the tongue
Responsive to
Salty solutions
Sour stimuli
Sweetness
Bitter
Taste
8. Skin
The skin senses: Touch and pressure sensation
Sensitivity variation in various parts of the body: Tongue, lips,
face, hands most sensitive; arms, legs, trunks least sensitive
Temperature (Cold and warmth) Sensation:
Variation in temperature of skin surface
COLD WARMTH
Pain Sensation:
Skin and interior of the body
32°C-----33°C
9. Attention
Attention is a selective process to bring certain stimuli into focus
of consciousness among a number of stimuli present in the
perceptual field.
10. Attention is selective process
Limited capacity perceptual system
Selection of certain stimuli for deeper level perceptual analysis
Filtering of other stimuli
State of readiness and responsiveness
Limited span
Fluctuation and shifting
Division of attention
Characteristics of attention
12. Form perception
Figure- Background: Perception of a figure/object standing out of a
background
Contours: A marked or abrupt change in brightness or colour in the
visual field which separates figure from the background
Physiological process in contour formation: Differential distribution of
light energy across the retina
Camouflage: Continuous change in brightness and colour; contours
broken up; difficult to distinguish object from the background
13. Gestalt principles of perceptual organization
1. Law of proximity
2. Law of similarity
3. Law of symmetry
4. Law of continuation
5. Law of closure
6. Law of common fate
Gestalt (Whole): Tendency to perceive the sensory field as
organized as possible/situation allows
14. Visual depth perception
Meaning
Relative distance of the objects
Depth in the surface of the objects
Paradox of sensory process
Flat retinal surface : Perception of depth and distance
Use of cues coming from sensory inputs
15. Cues in depth perception
Binocular Cues
Retinal disparity
Accommodation and adjustment
Monocular Cues
Linear perspective
Clearness
Interposition
Aerial perspective
Texture gradient
Size of the retinal image
16. Perceptual constancy
Brightness Constancy
Size Constancy
Unconscious Inference
A ratio between the retinal image and distance of the object is
calculated unconsciously
This ratio is constant across situations; therefore, perceptual
constancy
17. Movement perception
Real movement: Movement of stimulation across the retina despite
steady eyes (movement of retinal image)
Apparent movement: Perception of movement in the absence of
physical of an image across the retina
Stroboscopic motion: Successive pictures of a moving scene:
perception of a smooth action (kind of perception in the movies)
Auto kinetic effect: Staring at a small stationary spot of light in a
completely dark room: The spot appears to move
Induced movement: Movement in the framework induces perception of
movement in the object
18. Plasticity of perception
Modifiability of perceptual ability along the
developmental period
Sensitive period of perceptual development
Individual Differences in Perception
Perceptual learning: Environmental richness
Set
Motives and needs
Cognitive styles: Field dependent-independent
19. Learning
Change in behaviour: Adaptive or maladaptive
Occurs through practice and experience
Does not occur through maturation, fatigue or species-specific
behaviour
Relatively permanent
20. Theory of classical conditioning: Ivan P. Pavlov
When a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) is
paired with a natural stimulus (unconditioned stimulus,
UCS), neutral stimulus alone acquires the ability to elicit
the response (conditioned response, CR) which naturally
occurs (unconditioned response, UCR) after natural
stimulus
21. Paradigm of classical conditioning
Stimulus Response
Neutral/Conditioned Stimulus No response
Natural/Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned response
Continuous pairing of the two stimuli
Neutral/Conditioned Stimulus (alone) Conditioned response
22. Experimental phenomena of classical conditioning
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Reconditioning
Stimulus generalization and discrimination
23. Theory of instrumental conditioning: B. F. Skinner
Behaviour
Change in the
environment
Desirable
Undesirable
Increases the likelihood of
behaviour
Decreases the likelihood of
behaviour
24. Paradigm of instrumental conditioning
Nature of the event following a response
Appetitive Aversive
Consequenceofa
response
Onset of
event
Positive reinforcement
(Increases the likelihood
of behaviour)
Punishment
(Decreases the
likelihood of behaviour)
Termination
of event
Omission of
reinforcement
(Decreases the
likelihood of behaviour)
Negative reinforcement
(Increases the likelihood
of behaviour)
25. Cognitive learning
Learning without being involved in any active process
Selection of information from the environment
Making alterations in the selected information
Associating the items of information with each other
Elaborating information in thought
Storage of information
Retrieval of information when needed
27. Memory
Sensory Register Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
Duration
Vision: Up to 1 second;
Auditory: Up to 5 Seconds
Up to 30 Seconds Days, months, years or
lifetime
Capacity
Relatively large: Up to 16
items
Relatively small: Up to
7±2 chunks
Unlimited
Transfer
Process
Attention and recognition:
Attended and eecognized
items transfer into STM
Rehearsal: Rehearsed
items transfer into LTM -
Type of
Information
Copy of input Sounds, visual images,
words, sentences
Semantics, life events
Process of
Forgetting
Decay of trace Displacement of old
information by new one
No real forgetting; Faulty
organization of information,
Inappropriate retrieval cue,
Interference
28. Type of long term memory
Semantic memory
Words and meanings; relations among words; rules of use in
language and thinking
Storage in highly organized and associative manner
Stable in nature
Episodic memory
Memory of events in our lives in relation to the time and place
of their occurrences
29. Forgetting
Loss of information from the memory store
Process of forgetting
Decay of trace
Displacement of information
Retrieval problems
Interference
Forgetting B
(Proactive interference)
Learning A Learning B
Forgetting A
(Retroactive interference)
31. Childhood Amnesia
Childhood thought characterized by guilt: arousing sexual
and aggressive urges: Repressed and forgotten
Retrieval cue failure
Childhood brain is not mature enough for Long Term
Memory
Dream Amnesia
Freudian explanation
Retrieval cue failure
Different biological states
Psychological amnesia
32. Biological amnesia
Global amnesia: Global loss of memory
Retrograde amnesia (Forgetting of events previously exposed to) and
anterograde amnesia (Inability to encode and store new information)
Alcoholic amnesia
State dependent forgetting, prolonged alcoholism (Korsakoff
syndrome) vitamin-B deficits, chemical imbalances and irreversible
brain damages
Diseases of brain
Senile dementia and Alzheimer’s disease
33. Improving memory
Mnemonics: Acronyms
The Method of Loci
Deeper level of analysis: Association and elaboration of
information
Chunking
Making story by relating items
34. Thinking and language
Thinking
Cognitive rearrangement and manipulation of
Information from environment
Symbols stored in LTM
Cognitive process mediating between stimuli and
responses
35. Thinking and language
Images and thinking
Images are mental representation of environmental objects
We use images in our thought process as replacement of
the environmental objects
36. Thinking and language
Language and thinking
Language is the representative symbol
Stored in semantic LTM
Talking to oneself under ones breath
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: Whorf (1956)
37. Creative thinking
A novel and unique way of conceptualizing the world
Insight: Sudden appearance of new ideas
Stages of creative thinking
1. Preparation: Formulating problem and collecting facts
2. Incubation: Obstruction in thinking; Lack of motivation
3. Illumination: Insight; Sudden solution
4. Evaluation: Testing whether idea works or not
5. Revision
38. Creative thinking
Nature of creative thinking and thinkers
Divergent and autistic thinking
Prefer complexity
Greater independence in judgment
Self-assertive and dominant
Suppressed mechanism for the control of impulses
Origence
39. Concepts
Development of concepts
Discrimination learning
Observing examples in different contexts
Definitions of concepts
A symbolic construction of group of objects or events
representing some common features combined according to
specific rules.
40. Problem solving
Problem: Obstruction or difference between present and goal status
Problem solving: Behaviour targeted to remove obstruction and
difference between present and goal status
Rules in problem solving
Algorithms: Set of rules, if followed correctly guarantee solution
Heuristics: Strategies based on past experiences with problems, likely
to lead to solution; but do not guarantee solution
41. Decision making
Making choice among several alternative solutions
Comparative evaluation of alternatives
Theory of bounded rationality: Satisfycing decisions
(Sufficiently Satisfactory Decisions)