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Assignment on
           Pharmaceutical Solutions




Submission Date: 25/11/2010




                              Department of Pharmacy




                              The University of Asia Pacific
2Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions




 Table of Contents:

 Topics                                     Page no.
 Introduction                                  3
 Aqueous Solution
      Douches
      Water & Aromatic water
      Enemas
      Gargles
      Mouthwash
      Nasal wash                             3 - 16
     Spray
     Otic Solution
     Inhalation
 Non-aqueous Solution
      Elixirs
      Sprits
      Collodions
      Glycerin                               17 - 24
      Liniments
      Lotions
 Sweet or viscid                             25 - 26
      Syrups
 Differences between Syrup & Elixir            27
 Differences between Liniment & Solutions      27
 Differences between Spray & Spirits           28
 References                                    29
3Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions




 Pharmaceutical solutions
 Introduction:
 Many pharmaceutical chemicals are only slowly soluble in a solvent and require an extended
 time for complete dissolution. To increase the dissolution rate, a pharmacist may employ one or
 several techniques such as applying heat, reducing the particle size of the solute, utilizing of a
 solubilizing agent, or subjecting the ingredients to rigorous agitation. The pharmacist should
 ensure the materials are heat stabile and non-volatile when using heat to facilitate the
 dissolution rice.

 The terminology used for the titles of different forms of liquid preparation for both oral and
 topical use can sometimes be confusing with overlap between definitions and more than one
 definition being appropriate for one particular product. Furthermore definitions can vary between
 different official compendia and may be at variance with definitions used within pharmaceutical
 industry.


 Aqueous solutions:

 The narrow definition in this subsection limits the solvent to water and excludes those
 preparations that are sweet or riscid in character and non-aqueous solutions. This section
 includes those pharmaceutical forms that are designated as Douches, Aromatic waters,
 Enemas, Gargles, Mouthwashes, Nasal washes, Sprays, Otic solutions, Inhalations.




 Douche:

 A douche is a device used to introduce a stream of water into the body for medical or hygienic
 reasons, or the stream of water itself.
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 Advantages:

     •   It is used for recovering various vaginal irrigative diseases.




 Disadvantages:

     •   Many health care professionals state that douching is dangerous, as it interferes with
         both the vagina's normal self-cleaning and with the natural bacterial culture of the
         vagina, and it might spread or introduce infections. For example, the U.S. Department of
         Health and Human Services strongly discourages douching, warning that it can lead to
         irritation, bacterial vaginosis, and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Frequent douching
         with water may result in an imbalance of the pH of the vagina, and thus may put women
         at risk for possible vaginal infections, especially yeast infections.




                                             Fig: Douche

 Uses:

     •   Douche usually refers to vaginal irrigation, the rinsing of the vagina, but it can also refer
         to the rinsing of any body cavity. A douche bag is a piece of equipment for douching—a
         bag for holding the fluid used in douching. To avoid transferring intestinal bacteria into
         the vagina, the same bag must not be used for an enema and a vaginal douche.




 Why Use:

     •   Vaginal douches may consist of water, water mixed with vinegar, or even antiseptic
         chemicals. Douching has been touted as having a number of supposed but unproven
         benefits. In addition to promising to clean the vagina of unwanted odors, it can also be
         used by women who wish to avoid smearing a sexual partner's penis with menstrual
5Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


         blood while having intercourse during menstruation. In the past, douching was also used
         after intercourse as a method of birth control, though it is not effective.




 Water & Aromatic Water:

 Water which is a lightly scented perfume used as a skin freshener. It is referred to as "aromatic
 waters" and has high alcohol content. It is usually applied directly to the skin after bathing or
 shaving. It is considered a "weak" perfume, weaker than cologne. Aromatic water is defined as
 a dilute perfume. It was originally composed of alcohol and various volatile oils.




                                          Fig: Aromatic Water




 Advantages:

     •   Aromatic water can be used as viscosity imparting agent for solutions and also it can
         musk the bad odor of medicated solution.




 Disadvantages:

    •    It can alter the pH of the solution which may cause drug degradation. It is also
         sometimes incompatible with the medication.
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                                          Fig: Toilet Water.




 Pharmaceutical Use:

 A sweetened aromatic solution of alcohol and water, serving as a vehicle for medicine. Some
 aromatic waters have therapeutic value.




 Enemas

  An enema (plural enemata or enemas) is the procedure of introducing liquids into the rectum
 and colon via the anus. The increasing volume of the liquid causes rapid expansion of the lower
 intestinal tract, often resulting in very uncomfortable bloating, cramping, and powerful
 peristalsis, a feeling of extreme urgency and complete evacuation of the lower intestinal tract.




 Enemas can be carried out as treatment for medical conditions, such as constipation and
 encopresis, and as part of some alternative health therapies. They are also used to administer
 certain medical or recreational drugs. Enemas have been used for rehydration therapy
 (proctoclysis) in patients for whom IV therapy is not applicable.
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 Advantages:

         •   Can bypass the first pass effect. So, bioavailability is higher.




 Disadvantages:

         •   Improper administration of an enema may cause electrolyte imbalance (with repeated
             enemas) or ruptures to the bowel or rectal tissues resulting in internal bleeding.
             However, these occurrences are rare in healthy, sober adults. Internal bleeding or
             rupture may leave the individual exposed to infections from intestinal bacteria. Blood
             resulting from tears in the colon may not always be visible, but can be distinguished if
             the feces are unusually dark or have a red hue. If intestinal rupture is suspected,
             medical assistance should be obtained immediately.




 Uses:

 The main medical usages of enemas are:

    I.       As a bowel stimulant, not unlike a laxative – the main difference being that laxatives are
             commonly thought of as orally administered while enemas are administered directly into
             the rectum, and thereafter, into the colon. When the enema injection into the rectum is
             complete, and after a set "holding time", the patient expels feces along with the enema
             in the bedpan or toilet.

  II.        Enemas may also be used to relieve constipation and fecal impaction, although in the
             U.S.A. and some other parts of the world, their use has been replaced in most
             professional health-care settings by oral laxatives and laxative suppositories. In-home
             use of enemas for constipation and alternative health purposes is somewhat harder to
             measure.

  III.       Bowel stimulating enemas usually consist of water, which works primarily as a
             mechanical stimulant, or they may be made up of water with baking soda (sodium
             bicarbonate) or water with a mild hand soap dissolved in it; buffered sodium phosphate
8Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


        solution, which draws additional water from the bloodstream into the colon and increases
        the effectiveness of the enema – which often can be rather irritating to the colon, causing
        intense cramping or "griping" – or mineral oil, which functions as a lubricant and stool
        softener, but which often has the side effect of sporadic seepage from the patient's anus
        which can soil the patient's undergarments for up to 24 hours. Other types of enema
        solutions are also used, including equal parts of milk and molasses heated together to
        slightly above normal body temperature. In the past, castile soap was a common
        additive in an enema, but it has largely fallen out of use because of its irritating action in
        the rectum and because of the risk of chemical colitis as well as the ready availability of
        other enema preparations that are perhaps more effective than soap in stimulating a
        bowel movement. At the opposite end of the spectrum, an isotonic saline solution is least
        irritating to the rectum and colon, having a neutral concentration gradient. This neither
        draws electrolytes from the body – as can happen with plain water – nor draws water
        into the colon, as will occur with phosphates. Thus, a salt water solution can be used
        when a longer period of retention is desired, such as to soften an impaction.

  IV.   Cleansing the lower bowel prior to a surgical procedure such as sigmoidoscopy or
        colonoscopy. Because of speed and supposed convenience, enemas used for this
        purpose are commonly the more costly, sodium phosphate variety – often called a
        disposable enema. A more pleasant experience preparing for testing procedures can
        usually be obtained with gently-administered baking soda enemas; cleansing the lower
        bowel for colonoscopy and other bowel studies can be effectively achieved with water-
        based, or water with baking soda, enema administration.

  V.    The administration of substances into the bloodstream. This may be done in situations
        where it is undesirable or impossible to deliver a medication by mouth, such as
        antiemetic given to reduce nausea (though not many antiemetics are delivered by
        enema). Additionally, several anti-antigenic agents, which work better without digestion,
        can be safely administered via a gentle enema. Medicines for cancer, for arthritis, and
        for age-related macular degeneration are often given via enema in order to avoid the
        normally-functioning digestive tract. Interestingly, some water-based enemas are also
        used as a relieving agent for Irritable Bowel Syndrome, using cayenne pepper to squelch
        irritation in the colon and rectal area. Finally, an enema may also be used for hydration
        purposes. See also route of administration.
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  VI.   The topical administration of medications into the rectum, such as corticosteroids and
        mesalazine used in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Administration by
        enema avoids having the medication pass through the entire gastrointestinal tract,
        therefore simplifying the delivery of the medication to the affected area and limiting the
        amount that is absorbed into the bloodstream.

 VII.   General anesthetic agents for surgical purposes are sometimes administered by way of
        an enema. Occasionally, anesthetic agents are used rectally to reduce medically-
        induced vomiting during and after surgical procedures, in an attempt to avoid aspiration
        of stomach contents.

VIII.   A barium enema is used as a contrast substance in the radiological imaging of the
        bowel. The enema may contain barium sulfate powder, or a water-soluble contrast
        agent. Barium enemas are sometimes the only practical way to "view" the colon in a
        relatively safe manner. Following barium enema administration, patients often find that
        flushing the remaining barium with additional water, baking soda, or saline enemas helps
        restore normal colon activity without complications of constipation from the
        administration of the barium sulfate.




 Gargles:

 Gargles are aqueous solutions frequently containing antiseptics, antibiotics or anesthetics used
 for treating the pharynx and nasopharyngs by forcing air from the lungs through the gargle that
 is held in the throat; subsequently, the gargle is expectorated. Many gargles must be diluted
 with water prior to use.




                                           Fig: Gargles

 Advantages:
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           I.      A gargle containing the antibiotic tyrothricin has been shown to provide levels of
                   gramicidin.

          II.      A gargle containing the tyrothiricin, in saliva when used as a gargle rather than a
                   mouthwash.

       III.        Rapid relief of pharyngeal and oral pain by gargles.

  Uses:

      •         Gargle is used in the treatment of pharyngitis or Vincent’s stomaitis. It is also been
                applied in root canals of teeth or other dental pulp cavities. While used topically as a
                1.5-3% solution for cleansing wounds.




  Mouthwash:

  Mouthwash or mouth rinse is a product used to enhance oral hygiene. Some manufacturers of
  mouthwash claim that antiseptic and anti-plaque mouth rinse kill the bacterial plaque causing
  caries, gingivitis, and bad breath. Anti-cavity mouth rinse uses fluoride to protect against tooth
  decay. It is, however, generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need
  for both brushing and flossing. As per the American Dental Association, regular brushing and
  proper flossing are enough in most cases although the ADA has placed its Seal of Approval on
  many mouthwashes containing alcohol (in addition to regular dental check-ups). However, one
  Australian researcher believes mouthwash should only be used as a short-term solution.




                                                 Fig: Mouthwash
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  Mouthwash may also be used to help remove mucus and food particles deeper down in the
  throat. Alcoholic and strongly flavored mouthwash may cause coughing when used for this
  purpose.




  Advantages:

      •   Can be used several times.




  Disadvantages:

  •   A literature review by McCullough and Farah from 2008 published in the Dental Journal of
      Australia concluded that there is "sufficient evidence" that "alcohol-containing mouthwashes
      contribute to the increased risk of development of oral cancer". The authors also state that
      the risk of acquiring cancer rises almost five times in alcohol-containing mouthwash users
      who neither smoke nor drink (with a higher rate of increase in those who do). In addition,
      the authors highlight side effects from several mainstream mouthwashes that included
      dental erosion and accidental poisoning of children.




      However, the study has been disputed by Yinka Ebo of Cancer Research UK, who
      concluded that "there is still not enough evidence to suggest that using mouthwash that
      contains alcohol will increase the risk of mouth cancer".




  Uses:

      •   Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 20ml (2/3 fl oz) of mouthwash two
          times a day after brushing. The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a
          minute and then spat out. In some brands, the expectorate is stained, so that one can
          see the bacteria and debris. It is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour
          after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains sodium laurel sulfate, since
12Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


          the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in
          the mouth rinse.




  Nasal solutions:
  Nasal solutions are usually aqueous solutions designed to be administered to the nasal
  passages in drops or sprays. Other nasal preparations may be in the form of emulsions
  or suspensions. The adult nasal cavity has about a 20 ml capacity with a large surface
  area (about 180 cm3) for drug absorption afforded by the microvilli present along the
  pseudo-stratified columnar epithelial cells of nasal mucosa.




                                           Fig: Nasal wash




  Advantages:

    I.   The nasal tissue is highly vuscularised making it an attractive site for rapid and
         efficient systemic absorption.

   II.   Another advantage of nasal delivery is that it avoids first pass metabolism by the
         liver.
13Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


   III.       For some peptides and small molecular compounds, intranasal, bioavailability
              has been comparable to that of injections.

   IV.        The drug will no exposed to hostile environment of GIT.




  Disadvantages:

     I.       Bioavailability decreases as the molecular weight of a compound increases and
              for protein composed of more than 27 amino cids bioavailability may be low.

   II.        Various pharmaceutical techniques and functional excipients, such as surfactants
              have been shown to be capable of enhancing the nasal absorption of large
              molecule.




  Uses:

          •   Many drugs are administered for their local sympathomimetic effects to reduce
              nasal congestion, such as Ephedrine sulphate Nasal solutions, USP or
              Nphazoline Hydrochloride Nasal solution USP. A few other preparations,
              Lypressin Nasal solution USP and oxytocin nasal solutions USP re administered
              in sprays from for their systemic effect for the treatment of diabetes insipid and
              milk let down prion to breast feedings respectively.




  Sprays:
  Currently no sprays for use in atomizers are recognized by the official compendia. However
  there are a number of commercially available nasal decongestants, antihistaminic and anti-
  infective. These include drugs such as ephedrine, hydroxy amphetamine, phenylephirene,
14Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


  naphaazoline, tripelennamine, chlorobutanol, sulfonamides, nitrofurazone, oxymetazoline,
  tetrahydrozoline, tuminoheptane, cyclopentamine and cetylpyridium. These nasal solutions are
  aqueous in nature.




                                               Fig: Spray

  Otic Solutions:

  These solutions occasionally are referred to as ear oral preparation. Other otic preparations
  include suspensions and ointments for topical application in the ear. Ear preparations are
  usually placed in amounts for the removal of excessive ceriman (ear wax) or for the treatment of
  ear infections, inflammation or pain. Otic solutions may contain appropriate buffers, solvents
  and dispersants usually in an aqueous solution.




                                           Fig: Otic Solutions




  Advantages:

        I.   Rapid delivery of drugs to the site action of action.
15Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


          II.      Avoids first pass metabolism.

       III.        The drug will not exposed to hostile environment of GIT.




  Disadvantages:

          I.      Appropriate quantity cant given sometimes.

       II.        It creates skin irritation sometimes.




  Uses:

      •         The main class of drugs are used for topical administrations to the ear include
                analgesic, such as benzocaine, antibiotics such as neomycin and anti-inflammatory
                agents such as cortisone. The USP preparations include Antipyrine and Benzocaine otic
                solutions. The Neomycin and Polymyxin B sulfates and Hydrocortisone.




  Inhalations:

  Inhalations are drugs or solutions or suspensions of one or more drugs substances
  administered to the nasal or oral respiratory route for local or systemic effect. Solutions of drug
  substances in sterile water for inhalation or in sodium chloride inhalation solution may be
  nebulized by the used of inert gases.
16Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions




                                            Fig: Inhalation




  Advantages:

     I.   The vapor of the drug is inhaled into the nostrils when needed to relieve nasal
          congestions due to cold and high fever.

    II.   It may also be employed to relieve ear block and the pressure pain in air travelers.




  Disadvantages:

     I.   The content containers must be tightly closed after each opening to prevent loss of the
          drug vapors.
17Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


  Uses:

      •   The effects of the drug are rapid and are used in the treatment of anginal pain.




  Non- aqueous Solutions:
  This section is, therefore, devoted to groups of non- aqueous solutions, the alcoholic or hydro
  alcoholic solutions (e.g. Collodions), glycerin solutions (e.g. glycerin), oleaginous solutions (e.g.
  liniments, oleovitamins)



  Elixirs:

  Elixirs are clear, pleasantly flavored, sweetened hydroalcholic liquids intended for oral use. The
  main ingredients in elixirs are ethanol and water but glycerin, sorbital, propylene glycol, flavoring
  agents, preservatives and syrups often are used in the preparation of the final product. Their
  popularity is due to their pleasant flavor, their relative stability and the ease with which most of
  them are prepared.
18Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions




                                                Fig: Elixirs

  Advantages:

         I.   Elixirs are more fluid than syrups.

       II.    It often is desirable, it is more effective in masking such tastes.

       III.   Elixirs are more readily prepared and manufatured than syrups.

       IV.    An elixir may contain both water and alcohol soluble ingredients.




  Disadvantages:

         I.   It is intended for internal use only.

       II.    If an aqueous solution is added to an elixir, a partical precipitation of alcohol soluble
              ingredients may occur.

  Uses:

         I.   Elixirs are used as flavors and vehicle such as aromatic elixir USP for drug
              substances.
19Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


       II.    The solvents are often used to increase the solubility of the drug substances in the
              dosage form.




  Sprits:
  Sprits may be defined as solutions of volatile substances in alcohol. It sometimes known as
  essences is alcoholic or hydro alcoholic solutions of volatile substances. It may be solid, liquid
  or gas. The amount of volatile material in sprits varies greatly and no fixed percentage can be
  given. The preparation begins with Brandy and Whisky and ends with with a wide variety of
  products.




  Advantages:

        I.    Sprits can concentration greater concentration of alcohol than corresponding
              aromatic water.

       II.    When mixed with water or with an aqueous preparation the volatile substances
              present in sprits generally mixed with water or with an aqueous preparation, the
              volatile substances present in spirits generally separate from solution and form a
              milky preparation.




  Disadvantages:

        I.    Salts may be precipitated from their aqueous solutions by the addition of spirits due
              to their lesser solubility in alcoholic liquids.

       II.    Some spirits show incompabilties characteristic of the ingredients they contain.




  Uses:
20Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


      •   Spirits may be used pharmaceutically as flavoring agents and medicinally for the
          therapeutic value of the aromatic solute. As flavoring agents they are used to impart the
          flavor of their solute to other solute to other pharmaceutical preparations.

          For medicinal purposes spirits may be taken orally, applied externally, or used by
          inhalation depending upon the particular preparation.




  Collodion:
  A highly flammable syrupy liquid compounded of pyroxylin dissolved in ether and alcohol, which
  dries to a clear tenacious film; used as a topical protectant applied to the skin to close small
  wounds, abrasions and cuts, to hold surgical dressings in place, and to keep medications in
  contact with the skin.



  Flexible collodion: A preparation of camphor, castor oil, and collodion, used as a topical
  protectant.

  Salicylic acid collodion: flexible collodion containing salicylic acid; used topically as a
  keratolytic.




  Advantages:
21Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


     I.       It was the first widely used photographic process which resulted in a negative image on
              a transparent photographic medium. The other methods of its time, such as the
              Daguerreotype, produced a one-of-a-kind positive image, which could not be replicated
              easily.
    II.       In addition to the convenience of creating negatives, the collodion process had
              numerous other advantages. It was an inexpensive process, especially in comparison
              with the daguerreotype. The polishing equipment and fuming equipment needed for the
              daguerreotype could be dispensed with entirely. The support for the images was glass,
              which was far less expensive than silver-plated copper, and was more consistent than
              paper for paper negatives. It was also fast for the time, requiring only seconds for
              exposure.


  Disadvantages:

     I.       The wet collodion process had a major disadvantage; the entire process, from coating to
              developing, had to be done before the plate dried. This gave the photographer about 10
              minutes, sometimes less, to complete everything. The plate would be dripping silver
              nitrate solution, causing stains and troublesome build-ups in the camera and plate
              holders. This made it an inconvenient process for field use, as it required a portable
              darkroom.
    II.       The silver nitrate bath was also a source of significant trouble. Through repeated use, it
              would become saturated with alcohol, ether, iodide and bromide salts, dust and various
              organic matters. It would lose effectiveness, and would often result in mysterious failures
              of plates to produce an image.


  Uses:

          •   It is used as an adhesive to close small wounds and hold surgical dressings, in topical
              medications, and for making photographic plates.




  Glycerin:
22Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


  Glycerin is miscible with both water and alcohol but not with chloroform, ether or fixed oils. It is
  an excellent solvent for tannins, phenol and boric acid.

  Chemically it is the simplest trihydric alcohol. It is worthy of special note because the two
  terminal alcohol groups are primary, whears the middle one is secondary. Thus this becomes
  the first polyhydric alcohol that can yield both an aldose (glyceraldehydes) and a ketose
  (dihydrooxyacetone).

  It is a clear, colorless, syrupy liquid with a sweet taste and not more than a slight, characteristic
  odor, which is neither harsh nor disagreeable, when exposed to moist air it absorbs water and
  H2S and SO2 solutions are natural.




                                              Fig: Glycerin

  Advantages:

         I.   It is useful as humectants in keeping substances moist: owing to its hygroscopicity.

       II.    Its agreeable taste and high viscosity adapt it for many purposes.

       III.   Miscible with water, alcohol or methanol.




  Disadvantages:

         I.   An explosion may occur if it is triturated with strong oxidizing agents such as
              chromium trioxide, potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate.

       II.    In dilute solution reactions proceed at a slower rate.
23Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


       III.   Iron is an occasional contaminates of it and may be the cause of a darkening in
              color.

  Uses:

         I.   It has some therapeutic uses. In pure anhydrous form, it is used in the eye to reduce
              corneal edema and to facilitate opthalomoscopic examination.

       II.    It is used orally as an evacuant.

       III.   Because of its preservative qualities it is sometimes used as a stabilizer for solutions
              prepared with other solvents.




  Liniments:
      Liniments are alcoholic or oil based solutions or emulsions containing therapeutic agents
  intended for external application. They are intended for massage into the unbroken skin and can
  contain such ingredients as methyl salicylate or camphor as counterirritants.

    These preparations may be liquids or semi solids that are rubbed onto the affected area,
  because of this, they were once called embrocations.




  Advantages:

         I.   Liniments are very moisturizing and good for dry skin.

       II.    They have a low risk of sensization due to having few ingredients beyond the bases
              oil or fat and low irritation risk.




  Disadvantages:
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           I.      Strong Liniments and improper use may cause such problems as skin allergies,
                   dryness, lesions and even a permanent thinning of the skin.

          II.      They are often disliked by patients due to greasiness.




  Uses:

      •         Liniments are a common substance used by trainers and owners of horses. Liniments
                are especially useful in hot weather to help a hot horse cool down; the alcohols help the
                product to quickly evaporate.




  Lotions:
  Lotions are not defined specifically in the USP, but a broad definition describes them as either
  liquid or semi-liquid preparations that contain one or more active ingredients in an appropriate
  vehicle. Lotions may contain antimicrobial preservatives and other appropriate excipients such
  as stabilizers. Lotions are intended to be applied to the unbroken skin without friction. Lotions
  are usually suspensions of solids in an aqueous medium. Some lotions are in fact emulsions or
  solutions. Examples of official lotions are Benzyl Benzoate, N.F. Calamine Lotion, U.S.P.
  Hydrocortisone Lotion, N.F and White Lotion, N.F.
25Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


                                                    Fig: Lotion




  Advantages:

           I.      The lotions have an acceptable color and odor.

          II.      Cosmetic lotions are applied to hair, scalp face and hands and are popular as
                   sunscreen preparation.

       III.        They may be oily or hydroalcholic solutions or emulsions and frequently they contain
                   glycerin, perfumes and preservatives.

       IV.         Formulation containing glycerin keeps the skin moist for a considerable period of
                   time.




      Disadvantages:

           I.      They need to be shaken well before each use.

          II.      Microorganisms may grow in certain lotions if no preservative is included.

       III.        Care should be taken to avoid contaminating the lotion during preparation, even if a
                   preservative is present.




      Uses:

      •         Lotions are used antiseptic and germicidal and are used in the treatment of skin disease
                and as cooling and mildly anesthetic applications for skin irritations.


  Sweet and other viscid solutions

  Solutions that are sweet or viscid include syrups, honeys, mucilage and jellies. All of these are
  viscous liquids or semisolids. The basic sweet or viscid substances giving body to these
  preparations are sugars, polyols or polysaccharides.
26Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions




  Syrup:
             Syrups are concentrated, viscous, aqueous solutions of sugar or a sugar substitute with
          or without flavors and medical substances. When Purified Water alone is used in making the
          preparation is known as syrup, if the sucrose concentration is 85%.

          Medicinally they are divided into two groups:

          The Flavoring Syrup: Which are used as vehicle or flavor for prescriptions such as Acacia,
          Cherry, Cocoa, Orange and Raspberry USP.

          The Medicated Syrup: Which contain ingredients giving them therapeutic value.

          For example, tolu syrup is used as a cough expectorant and orange syrup contains dried
          bitter orange peel as a flavoring agent.




                                                     Fig: Syrup

  Advantages:

     I.      An important advantage of syrup is their acceptability and wide variety of flavors.

    II.      As syrups can contain up to 85% of sugars they are capable of resisting bacterial
             growth.
27Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions


   III.       They help to prevent crystallization and to maintain solubility of all ingredients.

   IV.        Syrups are also used to tablets particularly those with disagreeable aromas or acrid
              taste.

   V.         Sucrose based- syrups continuously administered to children apparently cause an
              aincreasedin dental caries and gingivitis.




  Disadvantages:

     I.       In a closed container it is possible for surface dilution for a syrup to take place. This
              occurs as a result of solvent evaporations.

    II.       Syrup may produce a diluted layer which provides an ideal medium for the growth of
              certain microorganism.

   III.       A further problem with the storage and use of syrups involve the crystallization of the
              sugar within the screw containers thereby preventing its release.




  Uses:

          •   The syrup dosage form is used for antibiotics, antihistamine, antitussives, sedative and
              vitamins.
28Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions



  DEFFERENCE BETWEEN SYRUPS AND ELIXIRS


          SYRUP                                              ELIXIR
  01. Syrup is concentrated, viscous, aqueous       01. Elixirs are clear, pleasantly flavored,
  solution of sugar or a sugar substitute with or   sweetened hydro alcoholic liquids intended
  without flavor and medical substance.             for oral use.
  02. Syrups are thicker than elixirs               02. Elixirs are thinner than syrups.
  03. Primary solvents is sugar and water.          03. Primary solvents are alcohol and water.
  04. Syrups are more viscous than elixirs.         04. Elixirs are less viscous than syrups.
  05. Syrup may or may not use an alcohol for       05. An elixirs must use alcohol for solubility
  solubility purpose.                               purpose.




  DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLUTION AND LINIMENTS


             SOLUTION                                         LINIMENTS
  01. A solution is a homogenous mixture that       01. Liniments are alcoholic or oil-based
  is prepared by dissolving solid, liquid or gas    solution or emulsion containing therapeutic
  in another liquid.                                agent.
  02. Solution can be used internally as well as    02. Liniments are for external use only.
  externally.
  03. Some liniments can be solution but all        03. Some solution can be liniments but all
  solutions are not liniments.                      liniments are not solution.
  04. Some pharmaceutical solution use              04. Liniments do not need these.
  sweetening, coloring, flavoring agent to
  increases aesthetic appeal.
  05. Solutions are always homogenous               05. Liniments may be homogenous or
  mixture.                                          heterogeneous mixture.
29Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions



   DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPRAYS AND SPIRITS




                 SPRAYS                                        SPIRITS
    01. Sprays are jets of fine medicated        01. A solution of essential or volatile liquid.
    vapor applied to a diseased part
    discharged into the air.
    02. Pressure is used to produce spray.       02. No pressure is needed here.
    03. It is a gaseous form of medicine.        03. It is a liquid form of medicine.
    04. It should be preserved in highly tight   04. It can be preserved in normal air tight
    pressurized container.                       container in normal pressure.
    05. Alcohol may or may not present in        05. Alcohol must be present in spirits.
    sprays.
30Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions




  References:


    I.    Sprowi’s American Pharmacy

             a. -Lewis W W. Dittert



   II.    Pharmaceutics: The Design and Manufacturer of Medicines

             a. -Michael E. Aulton



  III.    Remington’s The Science and Practice of pharmacy.



  IV.     En.wikipedia.org/wikt



    V.    www.pubmed.nl



  VI.     www.ukpmc.ac.uk



   VII.   www.healthchemist.co.nz

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Pharmaceutical solutions

  • 1. Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Submission Date: 25/11/2010 Department of Pharmacy The University of Asia Pacific
  • 2. 2Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Table of Contents: Topics Page no. Introduction 3 Aqueous Solution Douches Water & Aromatic water Enemas Gargles Mouthwash Nasal wash 3 - 16 Spray Otic Solution Inhalation Non-aqueous Solution Elixirs Sprits Collodions Glycerin 17 - 24 Liniments Lotions Sweet or viscid 25 - 26 Syrups Differences between Syrup & Elixir 27 Differences between Liniment & Solutions 27 Differences between Spray & Spirits 28 References 29
  • 3. 3Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Pharmaceutical solutions Introduction: Many pharmaceutical chemicals are only slowly soluble in a solvent and require an extended time for complete dissolution. To increase the dissolution rate, a pharmacist may employ one or several techniques such as applying heat, reducing the particle size of the solute, utilizing of a solubilizing agent, or subjecting the ingredients to rigorous agitation. The pharmacist should ensure the materials are heat stabile and non-volatile when using heat to facilitate the dissolution rice. The terminology used for the titles of different forms of liquid preparation for both oral and topical use can sometimes be confusing with overlap between definitions and more than one definition being appropriate for one particular product. Furthermore definitions can vary between different official compendia and may be at variance with definitions used within pharmaceutical industry. Aqueous solutions: The narrow definition in this subsection limits the solvent to water and excludes those preparations that are sweet or riscid in character and non-aqueous solutions. This section includes those pharmaceutical forms that are designated as Douches, Aromatic waters, Enemas, Gargles, Mouthwashes, Nasal washes, Sprays, Otic solutions, Inhalations. Douche: A douche is a device used to introduce a stream of water into the body for medical or hygienic reasons, or the stream of water itself.
  • 4. 4Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Advantages: • It is used for recovering various vaginal irrigative diseases. Disadvantages: • Many health care professionals state that douching is dangerous, as it interferes with both the vagina's normal self-cleaning and with the natural bacterial culture of the vagina, and it might spread or introduce infections. For example, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services strongly discourages douching, warning that it can lead to irritation, bacterial vaginosis, and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Frequent douching with water may result in an imbalance of the pH of the vagina, and thus may put women at risk for possible vaginal infections, especially yeast infections. Fig: Douche Uses: • Douche usually refers to vaginal irrigation, the rinsing of the vagina, but it can also refer to the rinsing of any body cavity. A douche bag is a piece of equipment for douching—a bag for holding the fluid used in douching. To avoid transferring intestinal bacteria into the vagina, the same bag must not be used for an enema and a vaginal douche. Why Use: • Vaginal douches may consist of water, water mixed with vinegar, or even antiseptic chemicals. Douching has been touted as having a number of supposed but unproven benefits. In addition to promising to clean the vagina of unwanted odors, it can also be used by women who wish to avoid smearing a sexual partner's penis with menstrual
  • 5. 5Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions blood while having intercourse during menstruation. In the past, douching was also used after intercourse as a method of birth control, though it is not effective. Water & Aromatic Water: Water which is a lightly scented perfume used as a skin freshener. It is referred to as "aromatic waters" and has high alcohol content. It is usually applied directly to the skin after bathing or shaving. It is considered a "weak" perfume, weaker than cologne. Aromatic water is defined as a dilute perfume. It was originally composed of alcohol and various volatile oils. Fig: Aromatic Water Advantages: • Aromatic water can be used as viscosity imparting agent for solutions and also it can musk the bad odor of medicated solution. Disadvantages: • It can alter the pH of the solution which may cause drug degradation. It is also sometimes incompatible with the medication.
  • 6. 6Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Fig: Toilet Water. Pharmaceutical Use: A sweetened aromatic solution of alcohol and water, serving as a vehicle for medicine. Some aromatic waters have therapeutic value. Enemas An enema (plural enemata or enemas) is the procedure of introducing liquids into the rectum and colon via the anus. The increasing volume of the liquid causes rapid expansion of the lower intestinal tract, often resulting in very uncomfortable bloating, cramping, and powerful peristalsis, a feeling of extreme urgency and complete evacuation of the lower intestinal tract. Enemas can be carried out as treatment for medical conditions, such as constipation and encopresis, and as part of some alternative health therapies. They are also used to administer certain medical or recreational drugs. Enemas have been used for rehydration therapy (proctoclysis) in patients for whom IV therapy is not applicable.
  • 7. 7Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Advantages: • Can bypass the first pass effect. So, bioavailability is higher. Disadvantages: • Improper administration of an enema may cause electrolyte imbalance (with repeated enemas) or ruptures to the bowel or rectal tissues resulting in internal bleeding. However, these occurrences are rare in healthy, sober adults. Internal bleeding or rupture may leave the individual exposed to infections from intestinal bacteria. Blood resulting from tears in the colon may not always be visible, but can be distinguished if the feces are unusually dark or have a red hue. If intestinal rupture is suspected, medical assistance should be obtained immediately. Uses: The main medical usages of enemas are: I. As a bowel stimulant, not unlike a laxative – the main difference being that laxatives are commonly thought of as orally administered while enemas are administered directly into the rectum, and thereafter, into the colon. When the enema injection into the rectum is complete, and after a set "holding time", the patient expels feces along with the enema in the bedpan or toilet. II. Enemas may also be used to relieve constipation and fecal impaction, although in the U.S.A. and some other parts of the world, their use has been replaced in most professional health-care settings by oral laxatives and laxative suppositories. In-home use of enemas for constipation and alternative health purposes is somewhat harder to measure. III. Bowel stimulating enemas usually consist of water, which works primarily as a mechanical stimulant, or they may be made up of water with baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) or water with a mild hand soap dissolved in it; buffered sodium phosphate
  • 8. 8Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions solution, which draws additional water from the bloodstream into the colon and increases the effectiveness of the enema – which often can be rather irritating to the colon, causing intense cramping or "griping" – or mineral oil, which functions as a lubricant and stool softener, but which often has the side effect of sporadic seepage from the patient's anus which can soil the patient's undergarments for up to 24 hours. Other types of enema solutions are also used, including equal parts of milk and molasses heated together to slightly above normal body temperature. In the past, castile soap was a common additive in an enema, but it has largely fallen out of use because of its irritating action in the rectum and because of the risk of chemical colitis as well as the ready availability of other enema preparations that are perhaps more effective than soap in stimulating a bowel movement. At the opposite end of the spectrum, an isotonic saline solution is least irritating to the rectum and colon, having a neutral concentration gradient. This neither draws electrolytes from the body – as can happen with plain water – nor draws water into the colon, as will occur with phosphates. Thus, a salt water solution can be used when a longer period of retention is desired, such as to soften an impaction. IV. Cleansing the lower bowel prior to a surgical procedure such as sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy. Because of speed and supposed convenience, enemas used for this purpose are commonly the more costly, sodium phosphate variety – often called a disposable enema. A more pleasant experience preparing for testing procedures can usually be obtained with gently-administered baking soda enemas; cleansing the lower bowel for colonoscopy and other bowel studies can be effectively achieved with water- based, or water with baking soda, enema administration. V. The administration of substances into the bloodstream. This may be done in situations where it is undesirable or impossible to deliver a medication by mouth, such as antiemetic given to reduce nausea (though not many antiemetics are delivered by enema). Additionally, several anti-antigenic agents, which work better without digestion, can be safely administered via a gentle enema. Medicines for cancer, for arthritis, and for age-related macular degeneration are often given via enema in order to avoid the normally-functioning digestive tract. Interestingly, some water-based enemas are also used as a relieving agent for Irritable Bowel Syndrome, using cayenne pepper to squelch irritation in the colon and rectal area. Finally, an enema may also be used for hydration purposes. See also route of administration.
  • 9. 9Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions VI. The topical administration of medications into the rectum, such as corticosteroids and mesalazine used in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Administration by enema avoids having the medication pass through the entire gastrointestinal tract, therefore simplifying the delivery of the medication to the affected area and limiting the amount that is absorbed into the bloodstream. VII. General anesthetic agents for surgical purposes are sometimes administered by way of an enema. Occasionally, anesthetic agents are used rectally to reduce medically- induced vomiting during and after surgical procedures, in an attempt to avoid aspiration of stomach contents. VIII. A barium enema is used as a contrast substance in the radiological imaging of the bowel. The enema may contain barium sulfate powder, or a water-soluble contrast agent. Barium enemas are sometimes the only practical way to "view" the colon in a relatively safe manner. Following barium enema administration, patients often find that flushing the remaining barium with additional water, baking soda, or saline enemas helps restore normal colon activity without complications of constipation from the administration of the barium sulfate. Gargles: Gargles are aqueous solutions frequently containing antiseptics, antibiotics or anesthetics used for treating the pharynx and nasopharyngs by forcing air from the lungs through the gargle that is held in the throat; subsequently, the gargle is expectorated. Many gargles must be diluted with water prior to use. Fig: Gargles Advantages:
  • 10. 10Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions I. A gargle containing the antibiotic tyrothricin has been shown to provide levels of gramicidin. II. A gargle containing the tyrothiricin, in saliva when used as a gargle rather than a mouthwash. III. Rapid relief of pharyngeal and oral pain by gargles. Uses: • Gargle is used in the treatment of pharyngitis or Vincent’s stomaitis. It is also been applied in root canals of teeth or other dental pulp cavities. While used topically as a 1.5-3% solution for cleansing wounds. Mouthwash: Mouthwash or mouth rinse is a product used to enhance oral hygiene. Some manufacturers of mouthwash claim that antiseptic and anti-plaque mouth rinse kill the bacterial plaque causing caries, gingivitis, and bad breath. Anti-cavity mouth rinse uses fluoride to protect against tooth decay. It is, however, generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both brushing and flossing. As per the American Dental Association, regular brushing and proper flossing are enough in most cases although the ADA has placed its Seal of Approval on many mouthwashes containing alcohol (in addition to regular dental check-ups). However, one Australian researcher believes mouthwash should only be used as a short-term solution. Fig: Mouthwash
  • 11. 11Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Mouthwash may also be used to help remove mucus and food particles deeper down in the throat. Alcoholic and strongly flavored mouthwash may cause coughing when used for this purpose. Advantages: • Can be used several times. Disadvantages: • A literature review by McCullough and Farah from 2008 published in the Dental Journal of Australia concluded that there is "sufficient evidence" that "alcohol-containing mouthwashes contribute to the increased risk of development of oral cancer". The authors also state that the risk of acquiring cancer rises almost five times in alcohol-containing mouthwash users who neither smoke nor drink (with a higher rate of increase in those who do). In addition, the authors highlight side effects from several mainstream mouthwashes that included dental erosion and accidental poisoning of children. However, the study has been disputed by Yinka Ebo of Cancer Research UK, who concluded that "there is still not enough evidence to suggest that using mouthwash that contains alcohol will increase the risk of mouth cancer". Uses: • Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 20ml (2/3 fl oz) of mouthwash two times a day after brushing. The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spat out. In some brands, the expectorate is stained, so that one can see the bacteria and debris. It is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains sodium laurel sulfate, since
  • 12. 12Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouth rinse. Nasal solutions: Nasal solutions are usually aqueous solutions designed to be administered to the nasal passages in drops or sprays. Other nasal preparations may be in the form of emulsions or suspensions. The adult nasal cavity has about a 20 ml capacity with a large surface area (about 180 cm3) for drug absorption afforded by the microvilli present along the pseudo-stratified columnar epithelial cells of nasal mucosa. Fig: Nasal wash Advantages: I. The nasal tissue is highly vuscularised making it an attractive site for rapid and efficient systemic absorption. II. Another advantage of nasal delivery is that it avoids first pass metabolism by the liver.
  • 13. 13Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions III. For some peptides and small molecular compounds, intranasal, bioavailability has been comparable to that of injections. IV. The drug will no exposed to hostile environment of GIT. Disadvantages: I. Bioavailability decreases as the molecular weight of a compound increases and for protein composed of more than 27 amino cids bioavailability may be low. II. Various pharmaceutical techniques and functional excipients, such as surfactants have been shown to be capable of enhancing the nasal absorption of large molecule. Uses: • Many drugs are administered for their local sympathomimetic effects to reduce nasal congestion, such as Ephedrine sulphate Nasal solutions, USP or Nphazoline Hydrochloride Nasal solution USP. A few other preparations, Lypressin Nasal solution USP and oxytocin nasal solutions USP re administered in sprays from for their systemic effect for the treatment of diabetes insipid and milk let down prion to breast feedings respectively. Sprays: Currently no sprays for use in atomizers are recognized by the official compendia. However there are a number of commercially available nasal decongestants, antihistaminic and anti- infective. These include drugs such as ephedrine, hydroxy amphetamine, phenylephirene,
  • 14. 14Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions naphaazoline, tripelennamine, chlorobutanol, sulfonamides, nitrofurazone, oxymetazoline, tetrahydrozoline, tuminoheptane, cyclopentamine and cetylpyridium. These nasal solutions are aqueous in nature. Fig: Spray Otic Solutions: These solutions occasionally are referred to as ear oral preparation. Other otic preparations include suspensions and ointments for topical application in the ear. Ear preparations are usually placed in amounts for the removal of excessive ceriman (ear wax) or for the treatment of ear infections, inflammation or pain. Otic solutions may contain appropriate buffers, solvents and dispersants usually in an aqueous solution. Fig: Otic Solutions Advantages: I. Rapid delivery of drugs to the site action of action.
  • 15. 15Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions II. Avoids first pass metabolism. III. The drug will not exposed to hostile environment of GIT. Disadvantages: I. Appropriate quantity cant given sometimes. II. It creates skin irritation sometimes. Uses: • The main class of drugs are used for topical administrations to the ear include analgesic, such as benzocaine, antibiotics such as neomycin and anti-inflammatory agents such as cortisone. The USP preparations include Antipyrine and Benzocaine otic solutions. The Neomycin and Polymyxin B sulfates and Hydrocortisone. Inhalations: Inhalations are drugs or solutions or suspensions of one or more drugs substances administered to the nasal or oral respiratory route for local or systemic effect. Solutions of drug substances in sterile water for inhalation or in sodium chloride inhalation solution may be nebulized by the used of inert gases.
  • 16. 16Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Fig: Inhalation Advantages: I. The vapor of the drug is inhaled into the nostrils when needed to relieve nasal congestions due to cold and high fever. II. It may also be employed to relieve ear block and the pressure pain in air travelers. Disadvantages: I. The content containers must be tightly closed after each opening to prevent loss of the drug vapors.
  • 17. 17Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Uses: • The effects of the drug are rapid and are used in the treatment of anginal pain. Non- aqueous Solutions: This section is, therefore, devoted to groups of non- aqueous solutions, the alcoholic or hydro alcoholic solutions (e.g. Collodions), glycerin solutions (e.g. glycerin), oleaginous solutions (e.g. liniments, oleovitamins) Elixirs: Elixirs are clear, pleasantly flavored, sweetened hydroalcholic liquids intended for oral use. The main ingredients in elixirs are ethanol and water but glycerin, sorbital, propylene glycol, flavoring agents, preservatives and syrups often are used in the preparation of the final product. Their popularity is due to their pleasant flavor, their relative stability and the ease with which most of them are prepared.
  • 18. 18Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Fig: Elixirs Advantages: I. Elixirs are more fluid than syrups. II. It often is desirable, it is more effective in masking such tastes. III. Elixirs are more readily prepared and manufatured than syrups. IV. An elixir may contain both water and alcohol soluble ingredients. Disadvantages: I. It is intended for internal use only. II. If an aqueous solution is added to an elixir, a partical precipitation of alcohol soluble ingredients may occur. Uses: I. Elixirs are used as flavors and vehicle such as aromatic elixir USP for drug substances.
  • 19. 19Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions II. The solvents are often used to increase the solubility of the drug substances in the dosage form. Sprits: Sprits may be defined as solutions of volatile substances in alcohol. It sometimes known as essences is alcoholic or hydro alcoholic solutions of volatile substances. It may be solid, liquid or gas. The amount of volatile material in sprits varies greatly and no fixed percentage can be given. The preparation begins with Brandy and Whisky and ends with with a wide variety of products. Advantages: I. Sprits can concentration greater concentration of alcohol than corresponding aromatic water. II. When mixed with water or with an aqueous preparation the volatile substances present in sprits generally mixed with water or with an aqueous preparation, the volatile substances present in spirits generally separate from solution and form a milky preparation. Disadvantages: I. Salts may be precipitated from their aqueous solutions by the addition of spirits due to their lesser solubility in alcoholic liquids. II. Some spirits show incompabilties characteristic of the ingredients they contain. Uses:
  • 20. 20Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions • Spirits may be used pharmaceutically as flavoring agents and medicinally for the therapeutic value of the aromatic solute. As flavoring agents they are used to impart the flavor of their solute to other solute to other pharmaceutical preparations. For medicinal purposes spirits may be taken orally, applied externally, or used by inhalation depending upon the particular preparation. Collodion: A highly flammable syrupy liquid compounded of pyroxylin dissolved in ether and alcohol, which dries to a clear tenacious film; used as a topical protectant applied to the skin to close small wounds, abrasions and cuts, to hold surgical dressings in place, and to keep medications in contact with the skin. Flexible collodion: A preparation of camphor, castor oil, and collodion, used as a topical protectant. Salicylic acid collodion: flexible collodion containing salicylic acid; used topically as a keratolytic. Advantages:
  • 21. 21Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions I. It was the first widely used photographic process which resulted in a negative image on a transparent photographic medium. The other methods of its time, such as the Daguerreotype, produced a one-of-a-kind positive image, which could not be replicated easily. II. In addition to the convenience of creating negatives, the collodion process had numerous other advantages. It was an inexpensive process, especially in comparison with the daguerreotype. The polishing equipment and fuming equipment needed for the daguerreotype could be dispensed with entirely. The support for the images was glass, which was far less expensive than silver-plated copper, and was more consistent than paper for paper negatives. It was also fast for the time, requiring only seconds for exposure. Disadvantages: I. The wet collodion process had a major disadvantage; the entire process, from coating to developing, had to be done before the plate dried. This gave the photographer about 10 minutes, sometimes less, to complete everything. The plate would be dripping silver nitrate solution, causing stains and troublesome build-ups in the camera and plate holders. This made it an inconvenient process for field use, as it required a portable darkroom. II. The silver nitrate bath was also a source of significant trouble. Through repeated use, it would become saturated with alcohol, ether, iodide and bromide salts, dust and various organic matters. It would lose effectiveness, and would often result in mysterious failures of plates to produce an image. Uses: • It is used as an adhesive to close small wounds and hold surgical dressings, in topical medications, and for making photographic plates. Glycerin:
  • 22. 22Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Glycerin is miscible with both water and alcohol but not with chloroform, ether or fixed oils. It is an excellent solvent for tannins, phenol and boric acid. Chemically it is the simplest trihydric alcohol. It is worthy of special note because the two terminal alcohol groups are primary, whears the middle one is secondary. Thus this becomes the first polyhydric alcohol that can yield both an aldose (glyceraldehydes) and a ketose (dihydrooxyacetone). It is a clear, colorless, syrupy liquid with a sweet taste and not more than a slight, characteristic odor, which is neither harsh nor disagreeable, when exposed to moist air it absorbs water and H2S and SO2 solutions are natural. Fig: Glycerin Advantages: I. It is useful as humectants in keeping substances moist: owing to its hygroscopicity. II. Its agreeable taste and high viscosity adapt it for many purposes. III. Miscible with water, alcohol or methanol. Disadvantages: I. An explosion may occur if it is triturated with strong oxidizing agents such as chromium trioxide, potassium chlorate or potassium permanganate. II. In dilute solution reactions proceed at a slower rate.
  • 23. 23Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions III. Iron is an occasional contaminates of it and may be the cause of a darkening in color. Uses: I. It has some therapeutic uses. In pure anhydrous form, it is used in the eye to reduce corneal edema and to facilitate opthalomoscopic examination. II. It is used orally as an evacuant. III. Because of its preservative qualities it is sometimes used as a stabilizer for solutions prepared with other solvents. Liniments: Liniments are alcoholic or oil based solutions or emulsions containing therapeutic agents intended for external application. They are intended for massage into the unbroken skin and can contain such ingredients as methyl salicylate or camphor as counterirritants. These preparations may be liquids or semi solids that are rubbed onto the affected area, because of this, they were once called embrocations. Advantages: I. Liniments are very moisturizing and good for dry skin. II. They have a low risk of sensization due to having few ingredients beyond the bases oil or fat and low irritation risk. Disadvantages:
  • 24. 24Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions I. Strong Liniments and improper use may cause such problems as skin allergies, dryness, lesions and even a permanent thinning of the skin. II. They are often disliked by patients due to greasiness. Uses: • Liniments are a common substance used by trainers and owners of horses. Liniments are especially useful in hot weather to help a hot horse cool down; the alcohols help the product to quickly evaporate. Lotions: Lotions are not defined specifically in the USP, but a broad definition describes them as either liquid or semi-liquid preparations that contain one or more active ingredients in an appropriate vehicle. Lotions may contain antimicrobial preservatives and other appropriate excipients such as stabilizers. Lotions are intended to be applied to the unbroken skin without friction. Lotions are usually suspensions of solids in an aqueous medium. Some lotions are in fact emulsions or solutions. Examples of official lotions are Benzyl Benzoate, N.F. Calamine Lotion, U.S.P. Hydrocortisone Lotion, N.F and White Lotion, N.F.
  • 25. 25Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Fig: Lotion Advantages: I. The lotions have an acceptable color and odor. II. Cosmetic lotions are applied to hair, scalp face and hands and are popular as sunscreen preparation. III. They may be oily or hydroalcholic solutions or emulsions and frequently they contain glycerin, perfumes and preservatives. IV. Formulation containing glycerin keeps the skin moist for a considerable period of time. Disadvantages: I. They need to be shaken well before each use. II. Microorganisms may grow in certain lotions if no preservative is included. III. Care should be taken to avoid contaminating the lotion during preparation, even if a preservative is present. Uses: • Lotions are used antiseptic and germicidal and are used in the treatment of skin disease and as cooling and mildly anesthetic applications for skin irritations. Sweet and other viscid solutions Solutions that are sweet or viscid include syrups, honeys, mucilage and jellies. All of these are viscous liquids or semisolids. The basic sweet or viscid substances giving body to these preparations are sugars, polyols or polysaccharides.
  • 26. 26Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions Syrup: Syrups are concentrated, viscous, aqueous solutions of sugar or a sugar substitute with or without flavors and medical substances. When Purified Water alone is used in making the preparation is known as syrup, if the sucrose concentration is 85%. Medicinally they are divided into two groups: The Flavoring Syrup: Which are used as vehicle or flavor for prescriptions such as Acacia, Cherry, Cocoa, Orange and Raspberry USP. The Medicated Syrup: Which contain ingredients giving them therapeutic value. For example, tolu syrup is used as a cough expectorant and orange syrup contains dried bitter orange peel as a flavoring agent. Fig: Syrup Advantages: I. An important advantage of syrup is their acceptability and wide variety of flavors. II. As syrups can contain up to 85% of sugars they are capable of resisting bacterial growth.
  • 27. 27Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions III. They help to prevent crystallization and to maintain solubility of all ingredients. IV. Syrups are also used to tablets particularly those with disagreeable aromas or acrid taste. V. Sucrose based- syrups continuously administered to children apparently cause an aincreasedin dental caries and gingivitis. Disadvantages: I. In a closed container it is possible for surface dilution for a syrup to take place. This occurs as a result of solvent evaporations. II. Syrup may produce a diluted layer which provides an ideal medium for the growth of certain microorganism. III. A further problem with the storage and use of syrups involve the crystallization of the sugar within the screw containers thereby preventing its release. Uses: • The syrup dosage form is used for antibiotics, antihistamine, antitussives, sedative and vitamins.
  • 28. 28Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions DEFFERENCE BETWEEN SYRUPS AND ELIXIRS SYRUP ELIXIR 01. Syrup is concentrated, viscous, aqueous 01. Elixirs are clear, pleasantly flavored, solution of sugar or a sugar substitute with or sweetened hydro alcoholic liquids intended without flavor and medical substance. for oral use. 02. Syrups are thicker than elixirs 02. Elixirs are thinner than syrups. 03. Primary solvents is sugar and water. 03. Primary solvents are alcohol and water. 04. Syrups are more viscous than elixirs. 04. Elixirs are less viscous than syrups. 05. Syrup may or may not use an alcohol for 05. An elixirs must use alcohol for solubility solubility purpose. purpose. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLUTION AND LINIMENTS SOLUTION LINIMENTS 01. A solution is a homogenous mixture that 01. Liniments are alcoholic or oil-based is prepared by dissolving solid, liquid or gas solution or emulsion containing therapeutic in another liquid. agent. 02. Solution can be used internally as well as 02. Liniments are for external use only. externally. 03. Some liniments can be solution but all 03. Some solution can be liniments but all solutions are not liniments. liniments are not solution. 04. Some pharmaceutical solution use 04. Liniments do not need these. sweetening, coloring, flavoring agent to increases aesthetic appeal. 05. Solutions are always homogenous 05. Liniments may be homogenous or mixture. heterogeneous mixture.
  • 29. 29Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPRAYS AND SPIRITS SPRAYS SPIRITS 01. Sprays are jets of fine medicated 01. A solution of essential or volatile liquid. vapor applied to a diseased part discharged into the air. 02. Pressure is used to produce spray. 02. No pressure is needed here. 03. It is a gaseous form of medicine. 03. It is a liquid form of medicine. 04. It should be preserved in highly tight 04. It can be preserved in normal air tight pressurized container. container in normal pressure. 05. Alcohol may or may not present in 05. Alcohol must be present in spirits. sprays.
  • 30. 30Assignment on Pharmaceutical Solutions References: I. Sprowi’s American Pharmacy a. -Lewis W W. Dittert II. Pharmaceutics: The Design and Manufacturer of Medicines a. -Michael E. Aulton III. Remington’s The Science and Practice of pharmacy. IV. En.wikipedia.org/wikt V. www.pubmed.nl VI. www.ukpmc.ac.uk VII. www.healthchemist.co.nz