1. © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
Crisis Intervention
William Harmening
Roosevelt University
Harmening, Crisis Intervention: The Criminal Justice Response to Chaos, Mayhem, and
Disaster
Chapter 15
THE COST OF CRISIS

2. © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
15.1
15.2
15.3
To identify the various types of stress impacting criminal justice
professionals.
To explain the impact of the police culture on an officer’s
response to stress.
To describe both PTSD and PTS and their diagnostic criteria and
stages.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
15.4
To describe accepted intervention strategies, including the
critical incident stress debriefing and psychological first aid.

3. To identify the various types of
stress impacting criminal justice
professionals.
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
15.1

4. 4
15.1 Types of Stress
“Whoever fights monsters should see to it that
in the process he does not become a monster.
And, when you look in the abyss, the abyss also
looks into you”
—Friederich Nietzsche

5. 5
15.1 Types of Stress
The High Cost of Job-related Stress
• From 1990 thru 1998, 22 Chicago police officers committed
suicide.
• During this same period, 20 LAPD officers killed themselves.
• From 1985 to 1998, 87 NYPD officers committed suicide.
The rate of suicide is even worse among correctional officers.

6. 6
15.1 Types of Stress
Types of Stress
• VICARIOUS STRESS
Stress that results indirectly from interacting with or observing others in
crisis.
• OCCUPATIONAL STRESS
Stress resulting from the demands, risks, and dangers experienced while on
the job.
• PROFESSIONAL STRESS
Stress resulting from the organizational-logistical demands of the job.

7. 7
15.1 Types of Stress
Types of Stress
Professional stress may be related to the following…
• Shift work and its impact on the family
• Unproductive management styles
• Unnecessary paperwork
• Minimal sentences for offenders
• Lack of training and equipment
• lack of respect by the public
• Antagonistic cliques and subcultures
• Self-doubts about performance

8. To explain the impact of the
police culture on an officer’s
response to stress.
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
15.2

9. 9
15.2 The Police Culture
The Role of the Police Culture in Stress
• The police culture is empowered by an us vs. them attitude among officers.
This leads to social isolation.
• Masculine social structures within the profession create a situation where
officers have few viable options for managing their stress, and the options
that are selected, such as excessive drinking and aggression, are oftentimes
unhealthy and unethical.
• The perception is typically such that officers believe that to be effective they
must present themselves to the public as fearless, authoritative, and
uncompromising. To facilitate this, they adopt a new identity, the police
identity.
• Correctional officers have their own unique identity that includes the
absolute necessity of never showing weakness in front of the inmate
population.

10. 10
15.2 The Police Culture
The Role of the Police Culture in Stress
Obstacles to effectively dealing with stress…
• A law enforcement culture that emphasizes strength and control.
• Negative perceptions and distrust of mental health providers.
• The stigma associated with seeking help.
• General concern about loss of privacy.
• Embarrassment and shame
The police culture is a double-edged sword for those officers who choose to
immerse themselves in it. It can bolster an officer’s ability to physically
protect themselves, but it can just as effectively cause their emotional
decline.

11. To describe both PTSD and PTS
and their diagnostic criteria and
stages.
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
15.3

12. 12
15.3 PTSD and PTS
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
The most common diagnosis given to criminal justice
professionals suffering the debilitating effects of
accumulated stress and trauma.
Came to the forefront of the mental health profession’s
awareness during and after the Vietnam War.
Symptoms include:
• Re-experiencing symptoms
• Avoidance symptoms
• Hyperarousal

13. 13
15.3 PTSD and PTS
Police Trauma Syndrome
Because police and correctional officers don’t always
easily fit the PTSD diagnosis, Dr. Beverley Anderson
(2002) developed the PTS diagnosis.
PTS develops over time and follows a particular
sequence of stages…

14. 14
15.3 PTSD and PTS
Police Trauma Syndrome
• The Rookie stage
During this stage the officer tries to maintain an ideological view of the job. At this stage they simply
repress stress-related emotions in order to maintain what they believe to be the appropriate police
image.
• The John Wayne stage
During this stage the officer tends to move from repressing emotions to acting out their opposites
(reaction-formation). Now they may joke in the presence of dead bodies and project an image of
toughness in response to feelings of weakness.
• The Professional stage
Now they simply deny any emotions. They dehumanize, depersonalize, and desensitize.
• The Burnout stage
Now their defenses are breaking down. Their self-image begins to unravel and they lose their sense
of mission and purpose. Intervention is critical at this point.
• Police Trauma Syndrome
(Next slide)

15. 15
15.3 PTSD and PTS
Police Trauma Syndrome (symptoms)
• Sleep difficulties
• Anxiety attacks and depression
• Flashbacks and intrusive thoughts
• Extreme mood swings with periods of rage
• Social isolation
• Drug and alcohol abuse
• Suicidal ideation

16. To describe accepted
intervention strategies, including
the critical incident stress
debriefing and psychological
first aid.
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to complete the following Learning Outcomes
15.4

17. 17
15.4 Interventions
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
The debriefing is intended to provide a safe forum for those exposed to a
traumatic event to describe and externalize their emotions before they rely on
unhealthy defense mechanisms to cope with the stress.
The debriefing consists of seven phases…
• Introduction phase
• Fact phase
• Thought phase
• Reaction phase
• Symptom phase
• Teaching phase
• Re-entry phase

18. 18
15.4 Interventions
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
The debriefing is intended to provide a safe forum for those exposed to a
traumatic event to describe and externalize their emotions before they rely on
unhealthy defense mechanisms to cope with the stress.
The debriefing consists of seven phases…
• Introduction phase
• Fact phase
• Thought phase
• Reaction phase
• Symptom phase
• Teaching phase
• Re-entry phase
During this phase team members attempt to create a
safe atmosphere for officers. They introduce themselves
and explain how they became part of the team. During
this phase officers are also assured of the confidential
nature of the meeting.

19. 19
15.4 Interventions
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
The debriefing is intended to provide a safe forum for those exposed to a
traumatic event to describe and externalize their emotions before they rely on
unhealthy defense mechanisms to cope with the stress.
The debriefing consists of seven phases…
• Introduction phase
• Fact phase
• Thought phase
• Reaction phase
• Symptom phase
• Teaching phase
• Re-entry phase
During this phase each participant in turn discusses their
involvement in the matter. This allows officers to begin
talking about the event on a cognitive level, and in a
non-threatening way. It also reduces self-doubt by
providing reassurance to all the officers that things were
done properly.

20. 20
15.4 Interventions
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
The debriefing is intended to provide a safe forum for those exposed to a
traumatic event to describe and externalize their emotions before they rely on
unhealthy defense mechanisms to cope with the stress.
The debriefing consists of seven phases…
• Introduction phase
• Fact phase
• Thought phase
• Reaction phase
• Symptom phase
• Teaching phase
• Re-entry phase
During this phase each participant discusses what they
were thinking during the event. It personalizes the event
for each officer and prepares the way to discuss their
emotions.

21. 21
15.4 Interventions
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
The debriefing is intended to provide a safe forum for those exposed to a
traumatic event to describe and externalize their emotions before they rely on
unhealthy defense mechanisms to cope with the stress.
The debriefing consists of seven phases…
• Introduction phase
• Fact phase
• Thought phase
• Reaction phase
• Symptom phase
• Teaching phase
• Re-entry phase
Now the officers begin to explore their emotions during
and after the event. This is oftentimes the most
threatening point in the debriefing. They are not asked
to share their feelings unless they choose to do so. By
externalizing these emotions, they can avoid repressing
them or dealing with them in unhealthy ways.

22. 22
15.4 Interventions
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
The debriefing is intended to provide a safe forum for those exposed to a
traumatic event to describe and externalize their emotions before they rely on
unhealthy defense mechanisms to cope with the stress.
The debriefing consists of seven phases…
• Introduction phase
• Fact phase
• Thought phase
• Reaction phase
• Symptom phase
• Teaching phase
• Re-entry phase
During this phase the officers discuss any changes that
have taken place since the event. This is also an
educational phase, as team members discuss the
effects and symptoms of stress-related disorders.

23. 23
15.4 Interventions
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
The debriefing is intended to provide a safe forum for those exposed to a
traumatic event to describe and externalize their emotions before they rely on
unhealthy defense mechanisms to cope with the stress.
The debriefing consists of seven phases…
• Introduction phase
• Fact phase
• Thought phase
• Reaction phase
• Symptom phase
• Teaching phase
• Re-entry phase
During this phase the officers learn about healthy
coping strategies and community resources that are
available if needed.

24. 24
15.4 Interventions
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
The debriefing is intended to provide a safe forum for those exposed to a
traumatic event to describe and externalize their emotions before they rely on
unhealthy defense mechanisms to cope with the stress.
The debriefing consists of seven phases…
• Introduction phase
• Fact phase
• Thought phase
• Reaction phase
• Symptom phase
• Teaching phase
• Re-entry phase
A way to gain closure before ending the meeting.
Questions are answered, and team members
summarize what took place. Participants are
encouraged to continue processing the event in
healthy ways, and the meeting is concluded.

25. 25
15.4 Interventions
Psychological First Aid
An alternative to CISD. It is not about having participants verbalize their
thoughts and feelings, but about providing various types of support while
officers process traumatic events as they normally do. The process has three
main goals:
1. Re-create a sense of safety
2. Reestablish meaningful social connections
3. Reestablish a sense of efficacy, or a belief in oneself that they
performed appropriately, and that they are capable of returning to their
jobs and conducting themselves in a professional manner.
The type of support offered depends on the circumstances of the event. It may
involve logistical support, a mental health referral, or something as simple as
listening while they talk. Or it may involve nothing at all.

26. © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
Police and correctional officers are under a tremndous amount
of stress everyday. They suffer the effects of
vicarious, occupational, and professional stress. Their suicide
rates are higher than the national average.
The police culture has a significant impact on how officers deal
with stress. It prevents them at times from processing traumatic
events in a healthy way, and may even contribute to unhealthy
ways of dealing with the stress, such as alcohol or aggression.
Prolonged exposure to trauma and stress may result in a
diagnosis of PTSD when the officer is no longer able to perform
their duties. Police Trauma Syndrome is a model that shows a
clear progression to serious stress disorder.
To proactively head off the negative effects of stress following a
traumatic event, many departments have their officers go
through a critical incident stress debriefing (CISD) to externalize
their emotions in a safe environment.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4

27. © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss our cultural view of police officers, and how this has
contributed to the development of the modern police
culture.
2. Discuss the importance of a correctional officer’s demeanor
to their personal safety on the job, and how their demeanor
may impact their ability to deal with stress in a healthy
manner.
3. Discuss the suicide rates among police officers as outlined
in the chapter, and give some reasons why you believe
those rates are as high as they are.