This document discusses various definitions of rhetoric throughout history. It begins by providing definitions from ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates and Sappho that portray rhetoric negatively as deceptive or persuasive. More recent definitions from the 20th century similarly emphasize rhetoric's persuasive elements. However, other scholars define rhetoric more broadly as the entire range of human communication and interaction, or as a tool for activism and social change. Overall, the document shows that there are differing views on whether rhetoric is primarily about persuasion or a wider study of communication, and that its purpose can be either positive or negative depending on how it is used.

1. Rhetoric: Definitions
Using rhetoric as a strategic tool

2. Some Common Early
Definitions
 “He who would be a skillful rhetor has
no need of truth” (Socrates, in Plato‟s
The Phaedrus, 360 B.C.E.)
 “Persuasion is Aphrodite‟s daughter: it
is she who beguiles our mortal hearts”
(Sappho, 5th Century)
 “…that power instrument of error and
deceit” (John Locke, 1690)
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3. More Recent Definitions
 “Rhetoric is the art of deception, isn‟t
it?” (Stephen Spender, 1950s)
 “…merely speech with designs on the
reader” (Deirdre McClosky, 1986)
 “false, showy, artificial, or declamatory
expression” (Merriam-Webster, 2007)

4. Note how we use the word
 “Impoverished students deserve
solutions, not rhetoric.”-- Letter to the
Chicago Tribune
 “All that other stuff is rhetoric and
bull. I don‟t think about it.”-- Athletic
coach
 “President Bush‟s speech was long on
rhetoric and short on substance.”--
New York Times Editorial
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5. Rhetoric is amoral—it can‟t be
either moral or immoral
 “It is the entire
range of our use of
„signs‟ for
communicating,
effectively or
sloppily, ethically or
immorally” (Wayne
Booth, The
Rhetoric of
Rhetoric).
 Only people who
use rhetoric can be
moral or immoral.

6. Wayne Booth wanted to distinguish
between “bad” rhetoric and “good”
rhetoric
 Rhetoric—“The whole range of arts not
only of persuasion but also of producing
and reducing misunderstanding.”
◦ Listening-Rhetoric (LR)— “The whole
range of communicative arts for reducing
misunderstanding by paying full attention to
opposing views.”
◦ Rhetrickery– “The whole range of shoddy,
dishonest communicative arts producing
misunderstanding—along with the other
harmful results. The arts of making the worse
seem the better cause.”
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7. Some scholars and thinkers have thought
about rhetoric primarily in terms of persuasion
 “The art of winning the soul by discourse”
(Plato).
 “…the faculty of discovering in any
particular case all of the available means of
persuasion” (Aristotle).
 “…speech designed to persuade” (Cicero).
 “…the use of language as a symbolic
means of inducing cooperation” (Kenneth
Burke).
 “…rhetorical communication is explicitly
pragmatic. Its goal is to influence human
choices on specific matters that require
immediate attention” (Gerald Hauser).

8. Some define rhetoric in terms of human
interaction
 “Rhetoric is the art, practice, and study of
human communication” (Andrea Lunsford).
 “… the art of removing misunderstanding”
(I.A. Richards).
 “Rhetoric is the mode of altering reality, not
by the direct application of energy to
objects, but the creation of discourse which
changes reality through the mediation of
thought and action” (Lloyd Bitzer).
 “…the entire range of resources that human
beings share for producing effects on one
another” (Wayne Booth).
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9. Others define rhetoric as a tool for activism
 Rhetoric is “…ultimately a practical study
offering people great control over their
symbolic activity” to accomplish goals (Charles
Bazerman).
 “It is not communication for communication‟s
sake. Rhetoric is communication that attempts
to coordinate social action…” (Gerard Hauser).
 “Rhetoric is a primarily verbal, situationally
contingent, epistemic art that is both
philosophical and practical and gives rise to
potentially active texts” (William Covino and
Daivid Joliffe).

10. The rhetoric of racism demonstrates different
types of rhetoric
 Watch Part 2 of Mrs. Elliot‟s landmark
experiment
 Note how she and the kids use
rhetoric as tools for
◦ Persuasion
◦ Human interaction
◦ social activism
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11. Quick Quiz!
 How might different definitions change
how we think about rhetoric?
 How do you use rhetoric as a tool in
your professional life?
◦ What aspects of rhetoric are you not using
that you could be using?
 What is your definition of rhetoric
now?
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