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SAVINGSAVING
OXFORDOXFORD
MEDICINE:MEDICINE:
An Overview and aAn Overview and a
Case Study of aCase Study of a
Geneticist’s ArchiveGeneticist’s Archive
Duke
Humfrey’
s Library
Bodleian
Library
Oxford
Ashmole
manuscript
s
Depiction of a
urinoscopy and a
dissection
13th
century
MS. Ashmole 399,
fol. 34r
Henry Wentworth AclandHenry Wentworth Acland
 Regius Professor ofRegius Professor of
Medicine, 1857-94Medicine, 1857-94
 Helped to found theHelped to found the
Honour School ofHonour School of
Natural Science,Natural Science,
18501850
 Championed theChampioned the
building of thebuilding of the
University MuseumUniversity Museum
The old
Indian
Institute
Oxford
Home of the
Contemporary
Scientific
Archives
Centre, 1973-
1975
Aims and objectivesAims and objectives
 DiscoverDiscover
 PreservePreserve
 PromotePromote
Survey workSurvey work
 Survey of archives of RegiusSurvey of archives of Regius
Professors of Medicine at Oxford,Professors of Medicine at Oxford,
1900-20001900-2000
 Survey of all clinical and non-clinicalSurvey of all clinical and non-clinical
departments in the Medical Sciencesdepartments in the Medical Sciences
DivisionDivision
Records of the RegiusRecords of the Regius
Professors of MedicineProfessors of Medicine
J.S. BurdonJ.S. Burdon
SandersonSanderson
Regius Professor ofRegius Professor of
MedicineMedicine
1895-19041895-1904
Acquisitions, 2011-2014Acquisitions, 2011-2014
 Hugh CairnsHugh Cairns
 Hugh SinclairHugh Sinclair
 Dorothy HodgkinDorothy Hodgkin
 Rod PorterRod Porter
 James GowansJames Gowans
 Bronwen LoderBronwen Loder
 David WeatherallDavid Weatherall
 Louise JohnsonLouise Johnson
Hugh CairnsHugh Cairns (1896-1952)(1896-1952)
neurosurgeonneurosurgeon
Hugh SinclairHugh Sinclair (1910-1990)(1910-1990)
nutritionistnutritionist
GroupGroup
containingcontaining
three Regiusthree Regius
Professors,Professors,
outside theoutside the
PhysiologyPhysiology
Lab, Oxford,Lab, Oxford,
c.1894c.1894
Dorothy HodgkinDorothy Hodgkin (1910-1994)(1910-1994)
chemist & x-ray crystallographerchemist & x-ray crystallographer
Rodney Robert PorterRodney Robert Porter
(1917-1985) immunologist(1917-1985) immunologist
Hand-colouredHand-coloured
lantern slidelantern slide
showing equipmentshowing equipment
demonstratingdemonstrating
columncolumn
chromatography,chromatography,
19571957
James L. GowansJames L. Gowans (b.1924)(b.1924)
immunologistimmunologist
A humanA human
lymphocyte, viewedlymphocyte, viewed
under an electronunder an electron
microscope.microscope.
Gowans discoveredGowans discovered
the life-cycle of thethe life-cycle of the
lymphocyte in 1959.lymphocyte in 1959.
Bronwen LoderBronwen Loder (b.1932)(b.1932)
biochemist and scientific administratorbiochemist and scientific administrator
David WeatherallDavid Weatherall (b.1933)(b.1933)
haematologist & molecular geneticisthaematologist & molecular geneticist
Louise JohnsonLouise Johnson (1940-2012)(1940-2012)
biochemist and protein crystallographerbiochemist and protein crystallographer
Archives catalogued,Archives catalogued,
2011-20142011-2014
 Ida MannIda Mann
 Edith BülbringEdith Bülbring
 Oxford Diabetes TrustOxford Diabetes Trust
 Oxford Medical SocietyOxford Medical Society
 Hugh SinclairHugh Sinclair
 Rod PorterRod Porter
Ida MannIda Mann (1893-1983)(1893-1983)
ophthalmologistophthalmologist
Edith BEdith Büülbringlbring (1903-1990)(1903-1990)
pharmacologist & physiologistpharmacologist & physiologist
Mabel Purefoy FitzgeraldMabel Purefoy Fitzgerald
(1872-1973) physiologist & pathologist(1872-1973) physiologist & pathologist
Cataloguing projectsCataloguing projects
Projects funded by the Wellcome Trust:Projects funded by the Wellcome Trust:
Bodmer archive, 2,200 boxesBodmer archive, 2,200 boxes
Oxfam Archive, 10,000 boxesOxfam Archive, 10,000 boxes
Oxfam ArchiveOxfam Archive (1942-2010)(1942-2010)
Promoting thePromoting the
collectionscollections
 Project pageProject page
 BlogBlog
 TwitterTwitter
 ExhibitionsExhibitions
Saving Oxford Medicine
Project page
Saving Oxford Medicine
Blog
Bodleian Library
Twitter account - @bodleianlibs
Current Bodleian
Exhibition – ends 18 May 2014
Preserving ModernPreserving Modern
Science CollectionsScience Collections
The papers of geneticists Sir WalterThe papers of geneticists Sir Walter
Bodmer and Lady Julia BodmerBodmer and Lady Julia Bodmer
 Genetics archive projectsGenetics archive projects
– the landscape– the landscape
 The Bodmers – biographyThe Bodmers – biography
and the collectionand the collection
 Archivists and modernArchivists and modern
science collections:science collections:
challenges and solutionschallenges and solutions
 PreservationPreservation
 InterpretationInterpretation
 Access – Data Protection ActAccess – Data Protection Act
1. Cataloguing Projects1. Cataloguing Projects
 (Bodleian Library, Oxford) Cataloguing the Papers of(Bodleian Library, Oxford) Cataloguing the Papers of
Sir Walter and Lady Julia Bodmer (Saving OxfordSir Walter and Lady Julia Bodmer (Saving Oxford
Medicine)Medicine)
 (Edinburgh University Library) ‘Towards Dolly:(Edinburgh University Library) ‘Towards Dolly:
Edinburgh, Roslin and the Birth of Modern Genetics’Edinburgh, Roslin and the Birth of Modern Genetics’
 (John Innes Research Centre, Norwich) ‘Cataloguing(John Innes Research Centre, Norwich) ‘Cataloguing
the archives of William Bateson and Cyril D. Darlington’the archives of William Bateson and Cyril D. Darlington’
 (Kings College, London) ‘DNA and Social(Kings College, London) ‘DNA and Social
Responsibility: Cataloguing and preserving the papersResponsibility: Cataloguing and preserving the papers
2. ‘Codebreakers: makers of2. ‘Codebreakers: makers of
modern genetics’modern genetics’
3. Human Genome Archive Project3. Human Genome Archive Project
 Scoping initiative launched 2012 byScoping initiative launched 2012 by
Wellcome LibraryWellcome Library
 Survey of archives created duringSurvey of archives created during
Human Genome Project (1977-2004)Human Genome Project (1977-2004)
 Emphasis on harvesting born-digitalEmphasis on harvesting born-digital
material – saving contemporarymaterial – saving contemporary
sciencescience
SummarySummary
 Substantial body of genetics resources nowSubstantial body of genetics resources now
availableavailable
 Network of archivists working on scienceNetwork of archivists working on science
collectionscollections
 Bodmer project at Bodleian contributes
significantly towards wider documentation of
this crucial field of scientific endeavour
Walter Bodmer (b. 1936)Walter Bodmer (b. 1936)
 Manchester Grammar SchoolManchester Grammar School
 Cambridge University (1956-60) –Cambridge University (1956-60) –
Undergrad/Ph.D (Undergrad/Ph.D (maths, statistics, population genetics)maths, statistics, population genetics)
 Stanford University (1961-69)Stanford University (1961-69)
 Oxford University (1970-79) – First ProfessorOxford University (1970-79) – First Professor
of Geneticsof Genetics
 Imperial Cancer Research Fund, Director ofImperial Cancer Research Fund, Director of
Research, Director-General (1980-96)Research, Director-General (1980-96)
 Principal of Hertford Collection, OxfordPrincipal of Hertford Collection, Oxford
University (1996-2005)University (1996-2005)
Head of Cancer and Immunogenetics Lab,Head of Cancer and Immunogenetics Lab,
Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine,Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine,
Oxford (1996- present day)Oxford (1996- present day)
Julia Bodmer (1934-2001)Julia Bodmer (1934-2001)
 State scholarship from ManchesterState scholarship from Manchester
High School to read (PPE) at OxfordHigh School to read (PPE) at Oxford
UniversityUniversity
 Statistical Assistant, CambridgeStatistical Assistant, Cambridge
University (1956-60)University (1956-60)
 Research Assistant, StanfordResearch Assistant, Stanford
University (1961-69)University (1961-69)
 Research Officer, GeneticsResearch Officer, Genetics
Laboratory, Oxford UniversityLaboratory, Oxford University
(1970-79)(1970-79)
 Head of Tissue AntigenHead of Tissue Antigen
Laboratory, ICRF, London (1980-Laboratory, ICRF, London (1980-
96)96)
 Joint Head of Cancer andJoint Head of Cancer and
Immunogenetics Lab, WeatherallImmunogenetics Lab, Weatherall
Institute of Molecular Medicine,Institute of Molecular Medicine,
Oxford (1996-2001)Oxford (1996-2001)
““To my wife, please doTo my wife, please do
not shred all mynot shred all my
papers!”papers!”
The Archive – 2216 boxes (18The Archive – 2216 boxes (18
month project)month project)
Societies & Organisations (603 boxes)Societies & Organisations (603 boxes)
Preservation ofPreservation of
science/biomedical archivesscience/biomedical archives
Experiment work on the geneticExperiment work on the genetic
analysis of human-mouse somatic cellsanalysis of human-mouse somatic cells
Opposites attract (full)
Gel electrophoresisGel electrophoresis
GelGel
electrophoresiselectrophoresis
Opposites attract (full)
Opposites attract (full)
Interpretation – how toInterpretation – how to
describe?describe?
Interpretation - solutionsInterpretation - solutions
 Work in partnership with donor/recordWork in partnership with donor/record
creator if possible – build a relationshipcreator if possible – build a relationship
 Connections with other archivistsConnections with other archivists
 Consult externally – scientists, medicalConsult externally – scientists, medical
profession, historians, etc.profession, historians, etc.
Access and Legislation –Access and Legislation –
challengeschallenges
 Data Protection Act – sensitive personal dataData Protection Act – sensitive personal data
 Finding balance between providing accessFinding balance between providing access
with protecting individual’s privacywith protecting individual’s privacy
 Over 1/3 of collection has some level ofOver 1/3 of collection has some level of
sensitivitysensitivity
Sensitive or confidentialSensitive or confidential
material in Bodmer archivematerial in Bodmer archive
 Named blood donor dataNamed blood donor data
 Named donor data of families and family treesNamed donor data of families and family trees
 Photographs of individual’s which reveal medical conditionsPhotographs of individual’s which reveal medical conditions
 Hospital patient lists/records (structured case notes or informal)Hospital patient lists/records (structured case notes or informal)
 Grant applications containing confidential references/statements ofGrant applications containing confidential references/statements of
opinionopinion
 ICRF personnel files incl. staff appraisals, staff appointments,ICRF personnel files incl. staff appraisals, staff appointments,
pension details, etc.pension details, etc.
 References and recommendationsReferences and recommendations
 Corporate confidentiality – high level meetingsCorporate confidentiality – high level meetings
 Opinions on staff, other scientists and their researchOpinions on staff, other scientists and their research
 Nominations for Royal Society, Nobel Prize, etc.Nominations for Royal Society, Nobel Prize, etc.
 Architectural plans of research units identifying location of animal-Architectural plans of research units identifying location of animal-
houseshouses
Access and Legislation:Access and Legislation:
solutionssolutions
 Forward plan: identify common types ofForward plan: identify common types of
sensitivities early– make consistentsensitivities early– make consistent
decisions on ‘closed’ datadecisions on ‘closed’ data
 Targeted correspondence, partiallyTargeted correspondence, partially
restricted boxes that were originally markedrestricted boxes that were originally marked
for full closure – 70 % correspondencefor full closure – 70 % correspondence
opened upopened up
http://savingoxfordmedicine.blogspot.co.uk/http://savingoxfordmedicine.blogspot.co.uk/
savingoxfordmedicine@bodleian.ox.ac.uksavingoxfordmedicine@bodleian.ox.ac.uk

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Opposites attract (full)

  • 1. SAVINGSAVING OXFORDOXFORD MEDICINE:MEDICINE: An Overview and aAn Overview and a Case Study of aCase Study of a Geneticist’s ArchiveGeneticist’s Archive
  • 3. Ashmole manuscript s Depiction of a urinoscopy and a dissection 13th century MS. Ashmole 399, fol. 34r
  • 4. Henry Wentworth AclandHenry Wentworth Acland  Regius Professor ofRegius Professor of Medicine, 1857-94Medicine, 1857-94  Helped to found theHelped to found the Honour School ofHonour School of Natural Science,Natural Science, 18501850  Championed theChampioned the building of thebuilding of the University MuseumUniversity Museum
  • 5. The old Indian Institute Oxford Home of the Contemporary Scientific Archives Centre, 1973- 1975
  • 6. Aims and objectivesAims and objectives  DiscoverDiscover  PreservePreserve  PromotePromote
  • 7. Survey workSurvey work  Survey of archives of RegiusSurvey of archives of Regius Professors of Medicine at Oxford,Professors of Medicine at Oxford, 1900-20001900-2000  Survey of all clinical and non-clinicalSurvey of all clinical and non-clinical departments in the Medical Sciencesdepartments in the Medical Sciences DivisionDivision
  • 8. Records of the RegiusRecords of the Regius Professors of MedicineProfessors of Medicine J.S. BurdonJ.S. Burdon SandersonSanderson Regius Professor ofRegius Professor of MedicineMedicine 1895-19041895-1904
  • 9. Acquisitions, 2011-2014Acquisitions, 2011-2014  Hugh CairnsHugh Cairns  Hugh SinclairHugh Sinclair  Dorothy HodgkinDorothy Hodgkin  Rod PorterRod Porter  James GowansJames Gowans  Bronwen LoderBronwen Loder  David WeatherallDavid Weatherall  Louise JohnsonLouise Johnson
  • 10. Hugh CairnsHugh Cairns (1896-1952)(1896-1952) neurosurgeonneurosurgeon
  • 11. Hugh SinclairHugh Sinclair (1910-1990)(1910-1990) nutritionistnutritionist GroupGroup containingcontaining three Regiusthree Regius Professors,Professors, outside theoutside the PhysiologyPhysiology Lab, Oxford,Lab, Oxford, c.1894c.1894
  • 12. Dorothy HodgkinDorothy Hodgkin (1910-1994)(1910-1994) chemist & x-ray crystallographerchemist & x-ray crystallographer
  • 13. Rodney Robert PorterRodney Robert Porter (1917-1985) immunologist(1917-1985) immunologist Hand-colouredHand-coloured lantern slidelantern slide showing equipmentshowing equipment demonstratingdemonstrating columncolumn chromatography,chromatography, 19571957
  • 14. James L. GowansJames L. Gowans (b.1924)(b.1924) immunologistimmunologist A humanA human lymphocyte, viewedlymphocyte, viewed under an electronunder an electron microscope.microscope. Gowans discoveredGowans discovered the life-cycle of thethe life-cycle of the lymphocyte in 1959.lymphocyte in 1959.
  • 15. Bronwen LoderBronwen Loder (b.1932)(b.1932) biochemist and scientific administratorbiochemist and scientific administrator
  • 16. David WeatherallDavid Weatherall (b.1933)(b.1933) haematologist & molecular geneticisthaematologist & molecular geneticist
  • 17. Louise JohnsonLouise Johnson (1940-2012)(1940-2012) biochemist and protein crystallographerbiochemist and protein crystallographer
  • 18. Archives catalogued,Archives catalogued, 2011-20142011-2014  Ida MannIda Mann  Edith BülbringEdith Bülbring  Oxford Diabetes TrustOxford Diabetes Trust  Oxford Medical SocietyOxford Medical Society  Hugh SinclairHugh Sinclair  Rod PorterRod Porter
  • 19. Ida MannIda Mann (1893-1983)(1893-1983) ophthalmologistophthalmologist
  • 20. Edith BEdith Büülbringlbring (1903-1990)(1903-1990) pharmacologist & physiologistpharmacologist & physiologist
  • 21. Mabel Purefoy FitzgeraldMabel Purefoy Fitzgerald (1872-1973) physiologist & pathologist(1872-1973) physiologist & pathologist
  • 22. Cataloguing projectsCataloguing projects Projects funded by the Wellcome Trust:Projects funded by the Wellcome Trust: Bodmer archive, 2,200 boxesBodmer archive, 2,200 boxes Oxfam Archive, 10,000 boxesOxfam Archive, 10,000 boxes
  • 23. Oxfam ArchiveOxfam Archive (1942-2010)(1942-2010)
  • 24. Promoting thePromoting the collectionscollections  Project pageProject page  BlogBlog  TwitterTwitter  ExhibitionsExhibitions
  • 29. Preserving ModernPreserving Modern Science CollectionsScience Collections The papers of geneticists Sir WalterThe papers of geneticists Sir Walter Bodmer and Lady Julia BodmerBodmer and Lady Julia Bodmer
  • 30.  Genetics archive projectsGenetics archive projects – the landscape– the landscape  The Bodmers – biographyThe Bodmers – biography and the collectionand the collection  Archivists and modernArchivists and modern science collections:science collections: challenges and solutionschallenges and solutions  PreservationPreservation  InterpretationInterpretation  Access – Data Protection ActAccess – Data Protection Act
  • 31. 1. Cataloguing Projects1. Cataloguing Projects  (Bodleian Library, Oxford) Cataloguing the Papers of(Bodleian Library, Oxford) Cataloguing the Papers of Sir Walter and Lady Julia Bodmer (Saving OxfordSir Walter and Lady Julia Bodmer (Saving Oxford Medicine)Medicine)  (Edinburgh University Library) ‘Towards Dolly:(Edinburgh University Library) ‘Towards Dolly: Edinburgh, Roslin and the Birth of Modern Genetics’Edinburgh, Roslin and the Birth of Modern Genetics’  (John Innes Research Centre, Norwich) ‘Cataloguing(John Innes Research Centre, Norwich) ‘Cataloguing the archives of William Bateson and Cyril D. Darlington’the archives of William Bateson and Cyril D. Darlington’  (Kings College, London) ‘DNA and Social(Kings College, London) ‘DNA and Social Responsibility: Cataloguing and preserving the papersResponsibility: Cataloguing and preserving the papers
  • 32. 2. ‘Codebreakers: makers of2. ‘Codebreakers: makers of modern genetics’modern genetics’
  • 33. 3. Human Genome Archive Project3. Human Genome Archive Project  Scoping initiative launched 2012 byScoping initiative launched 2012 by Wellcome LibraryWellcome Library  Survey of archives created duringSurvey of archives created during Human Genome Project (1977-2004)Human Genome Project (1977-2004)  Emphasis on harvesting born-digitalEmphasis on harvesting born-digital material – saving contemporarymaterial – saving contemporary sciencescience
  • 34. SummarySummary  Substantial body of genetics resources nowSubstantial body of genetics resources now availableavailable  Network of archivists working on scienceNetwork of archivists working on science collectionscollections  Bodmer project at Bodleian contributes significantly towards wider documentation of this crucial field of scientific endeavour
  • 35. Walter Bodmer (b. 1936)Walter Bodmer (b. 1936)  Manchester Grammar SchoolManchester Grammar School  Cambridge University (1956-60) –Cambridge University (1956-60) – Undergrad/Ph.D (Undergrad/Ph.D (maths, statistics, population genetics)maths, statistics, population genetics)  Stanford University (1961-69)Stanford University (1961-69)  Oxford University (1970-79) – First ProfessorOxford University (1970-79) – First Professor of Geneticsof Genetics  Imperial Cancer Research Fund, Director ofImperial Cancer Research Fund, Director of Research, Director-General (1980-96)Research, Director-General (1980-96)  Principal of Hertford Collection, OxfordPrincipal of Hertford Collection, Oxford University (1996-2005)University (1996-2005) Head of Cancer and Immunogenetics Lab,Head of Cancer and Immunogenetics Lab, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine,Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Oxford (1996- present day)Oxford (1996- present day)
  • 36. Julia Bodmer (1934-2001)Julia Bodmer (1934-2001)  State scholarship from ManchesterState scholarship from Manchester High School to read (PPE) at OxfordHigh School to read (PPE) at Oxford UniversityUniversity  Statistical Assistant, CambridgeStatistical Assistant, Cambridge University (1956-60)University (1956-60)  Research Assistant, StanfordResearch Assistant, Stanford University (1961-69)University (1961-69)  Research Officer, GeneticsResearch Officer, Genetics Laboratory, Oxford UniversityLaboratory, Oxford University (1970-79)(1970-79)  Head of Tissue AntigenHead of Tissue Antigen Laboratory, ICRF, London (1980-Laboratory, ICRF, London (1980- 96)96)  Joint Head of Cancer andJoint Head of Cancer and Immunogenetics Lab, WeatherallImmunogenetics Lab, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine,Institute of Molecular Medicine, Oxford (1996-2001)Oxford (1996-2001)
  • 37. ““To my wife, please doTo my wife, please do not shred all mynot shred all my papers!”papers!”
  • 38. The Archive – 2216 boxes (18The Archive – 2216 boxes (18 month project)month project)
  • 39. Societies & Organisations (603 boxes)Societies & Organisations (603 boxes)
  • 40. Preservation ofPreservation of science/biomedical archivesscience/biomedical archives
  • 41. Experiment work on the geneticExperiment work on the genetic analysis of human-mouse somatic cellsanalysis of human-mouse somatic cells
  • 47. Interpretation – how toInterpretation – how to describe?describe?
  • 48. Interpretation - solutionsInterpretation - solutions  Work in partnership with donor/recordWork in partnership with donor/record creator if possible – build a relationshipcreator if possible – build a relationship  Connections with other archivistsConnections with other archivists  Consult externally – scientists, medicalConsult externally – scientists, medical profession, historians, etc.profession, historians, etc.
  • 49. Access and Legislation –Access and Legislation – challengeschallenges  Data Protection Act – sensitive personal dataData Protection Act – sensitive personal data  Finding balance between providing accessFinding balance between providing access with protecting individual’s privacywith protecting individual’s privacy  Over 1/3 of collection has some level ofOver 1/3 of collection has some level of sensitivitysensitivity
  • 50. Sensitive or confidentialSensitive or confidential material in Bodmer archivematerial in Bodmer archive  Named blood donor dataNamed blood donor data  Named donor data of families and family treesNamed donor data of families and family trees  Photographs of individual’s which reveal medical conditionsPhotographs of individual’s which reveal medical conditions  Hospital patient lists/records (structured case notes or informal)Hospital patient lists/records (structured case notes or informal)  Grant applications containing confidential references/statements ofGrant applications containing confidential references/statements of opinionopinion  ICRF personnel files incl. staff appraisals, staff appointments,ICRF personnel files incl. staff appraisals, staff appointments, pension details, etc.pension details, etc.  References and recommendationsReferences and recommendations  Corporate confidentiality – high level meetingsCorporate confidentiality – high level meetings  Opinions on staff, other scientists and their researchOpinions on staff, other scientists and their research  Nominations for Royal Society, Nobel Prize, etc.Nominations for Royal Society, Nobel Prize, etc.  Architectural plans of research units identifying location of animal-Architectural plans of research units identifying location of animal- houseshouses
  • 51. Access and Legislation:Access and Legislation: solutionssolutions  Forward plan: identify common types ofForward plan: identify common types of sensitivities early– make consistentsensitivities early– make consistent decisions on ‘closed’ datadecisions on ‘closed’ data  Targeted correspondence, partiallyTargeted correspondence, partially restricted boxes that were originally markedrestricted boxes that were originally marked for full closure – 70 % correspondencefor full closure – 70 % correspondence opened upopened up

Notas del editor

  1. Genetics Laboratory- c. 1973Same step outside Physiology building – Hugh Sinclair Archive 1894
  2. Other geneticists not included in this list of digitised archives include: Peter Medewar, Arthur Mourant, Lionel Penrose and Gerard Wyatt
  3. Chromatography : Gel electrophoresis (papers have shiny film): developed from the 1970s - method of analysing DNA by using electricity to charge the molecules and separate DNA fragments as they pass through a gel matrix. (monkey spleen fusions to produce antibody) Used in Western blotting or Southern blotting tests.
  4. Colorectal cell lines
  5. Western blot tests – uses gel electrophoresis to separate proteins making it possible to identify specific proteins; Southern blotting is used for the detection of a specific DNA sequence
  6. Very small selection - over 100 boxes –chromatography dyes contain carcinogens- traces on filter paper that fluoresced under UV light
  7. Population genetics