1. The Lithosphere and
Hydrosphere

2. 1.1 Minerals
• Minerals are inorganic substances that exist
naturally on Earth and have clearly defined
composition and properties.
• Minerals are not manufactured by man.
• Inorganic means they were never living.
• Most minerals have a very organized structure.
• Minerals of the same type have identical
structures.

3. • The atom structure of diamond
• Contains carbon atoms, as does coal!!!!

4. • The chemical composition is also the same for
each type of mineral.
• May be a single chemical element such as gold
(Au), silver (Ag), uranium (U), iron (Fe)…
• Other minerals are made of “chemically bonded”
elements: NaCl (salt), CuSO4 (copper
sulphate)), SiO2 (quartz)…

5. Mineral Classification
• Minerals are classified by the following 4
properties:
– Colour
– Transparency
– Hardness
– Streak

6. Colour
• Many minerals have a characteristic colour.
• Idiochromatic minerals – their color is pure and
there are no impurities.
• Allochromatic minerals – contain minute
amounts of impurities which gives them
variations in color depending on the percentage
of impurities.

7. Transparency
• Minerals that allow light to pass straight through
are transparent.
• Minerals that allow light through but do not
allow objects to be distinguished are translucent.
• Minerals that do not allow any light to pass
through are opaque.

8. Hardness
• Hardness depends on the strength of the bonds
uniting the atoms in a mineral.
• The Moh’s scale assigns a value from 1 to 10 to a
mineral to indicate its hardness.
• The hardness is measured by a minerals
resistance to scratching.
• 1 is soft like talc and 10 is hard like diamonds.
• Higher numbers can scratch the minerals with
smaller numbers.

9. • Tool steel (7-6)
• Knife or glass (6-5)
• Copper coin (4-3)
• Fingernail (3-2)

10. Streak
• When a mineral is rubbed on a surface of
unglazed porcelain, it leaves a powder trace.
• The powder left behind is always the same for a
certain mineral – called the streak.
• Idiochromatic minerals leave a brightly colored
streak
• Allochromatic minerals leave a white or pale
powder streak

11. More Cool Mineral Info
Fascinating Fact
• The elements oxygen (47%), silicon
(27), aluminum (8%), iron (5%), magnesium
(2.1%), calcium (3.6%), potassium (2.6%), and
sodium (2.8%) make up 98.5 percent of all
minerals on Earth.

12. • Do you know the difference between a rock and
a mineral?
• Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Here
are some of the basic characteristics of minerals
to help you understand what they are:
• Minerals are inorganic; they are not alive and
they are not plants or animals. An example of a
rock that is not a mineral is coal. Coal is a
substance formed from decayed plants and
animals. Therefore, coal is not considered a
mineral.
•

13. • Minerals are found in the earth or are naturally
occurring substances. They are found in
dirt, rocks, and water. They are not made by
man.
• Minerals are chemical substances. Some
minerals like gold or silver are made of only one
element. Other minerals, like quartz and
calcite, are combinations of two or more
elements.
• Minerals always have the same chemical
makeup. For example, quartz will always consist
of one part silicon (an element) two parts
oxygen (another element).

14. • There are 4400 minerals! Oxygen is part of
many minerals. Minerals containing oxygen
make up almost half of the earth's crust. Quartz
(SiO2) is a common mineral. Other common
minerals are feldspar, mica, and horneblend.
Many rocks are made of these common
minerals.
• Some minerals are rare and expensive. They are
called gems . Diamonds, rubies, and emeralds
are good examples of such minerals. Gold and
silver are also minerals. Together, these natural
substances are used to make beautiful jewelry.
•

15. Do we have time for some strange
science?
• Copper
• Magnesium
• Calcium
• Potassium

16. Reactivity increases for metals
Reactivity increases for
non-metalsmetals

17. Mining
• Material extracted from the lithosphere are
called ore - this is rock that contains the mineral.
• A deposit is when there is a large enough mineral
amount and concentration in one area.
• Quebec has large deposits of
gold, copper, zinc, nickel and iron.

18. • Mining is complex and costly!!
• There are open pit mines for deposits located
near the surface.
• Mine drifts are the horizontal passages in
underground mines. These areas have air ducts
and water supply lines.
• Extracting the minerals from the ore is different
for each type of mineral.

19. Mineral Possible Uses
Gold Jewellery
Trade
Electronic Equipment
Copper Pipes for plumbing
Electrical wiring
Electronic equipment
Construction (roofing)
Zinc Galvanized steel (to prevent corrosion)
Automotive parts
Nickel Stainless steel manufacturing
Coins
Magnets
Iron Steel manufacture
• Be sure to know this chart!!

20. Rocks
• Rocks are heterogeneous solids composed of
many minerals.
• The physical and chemical properties of rocks are
not strictly defined because they are made of
several minerals and not always the same
percentage of each mineral.
• Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.

21. • There are 3 types of rocks.
1. Igneous – formed when magma cools and
solidifies
2. Sedimentary – formed by the accumulation and
compaction of debris.
3. Metamorphic – former igneous or sedimentary
rock that has been transformed by heat or
pressure. This process can take millions of
years!!

22. More on igneous rocks…
• Magma that cools in contact with air makes
extrusive igneous rocks.
• It cools rapidly and then solidifies.
• Magma that solidifies before reaching the
surface creates intrusive igneous rocks.
• The same minerals are making different types of
rock!!

23. • Intrusive  Extrusive igneous –
igneous – pumice and obsidian
Devil’s Tower
an intrusive
pluton and
granite

24. Uses of rocks
Rock Type Possible Uses
Granite Intrusive igneous Ornamental stone
Diorite Intrusive igneous Ornamental stone
Pumice Extrusive igneous Light building material, cosmetic
industry
Basalt Extrusive igneous Insulation, floor tiles, road
construction
Sandstone Sedimentary Building materials
Limestone Sedimentary Cement, building materials
Gneiss Metamorphic Building materials
Marble Metamorphic Interior design, decorative objects

25. A Quick Review
• The main sources of natural energy are the
sun, wind, water and earth.

26. Solar Energy
• The sun provides a source of
energy to the earth in the form of
solar radiation. We can use this
solar energy source to not only
generate electricity but to also
heat a water supply.
• Solar energy is the most widely
used natural energy source
among homeowners.

27. Wind Energy
• We can harness the energy of the
wind in a variety of ways in order to
produce not only electricity but also
momentum. Both industrial and
home wind turbines can be used to
provide a renewable source of
energy.

28. Water Energy
• Water is the most diverse as it
can be used in a variety of
ways. The tides and waves of
the sea can be used to
generate electricity whilst
rivers can be held back by a
hydroelectric dam to provide
power to the masses.

29. Renewable and Non-renewable
• Renewable energy is energy which comes from
natural resources such as
sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal
heat, which are renewable (naturally
replenished).
• Non-renewable are resources that are consumed
much faster than nature can create them. Fossil
fuels (such as coal, petroleum, and natural
gas), nuclear power (uranium) and certain aquifers
are examples.
• Resources such as timber (when harvested
sustainably) or metals (which can be recycled) are
considered renewable resources.

30. Forms of energy
• Four forms to be aware of:
1. Chemical
2. Thermal
3. Mechanical
4. Radiation

31. Energy Transformation
• Transforming energy is when the energy changes
into another form.
• There are many examples:
– Chemical (gas) mechanical (car moves) 
thermal (engine heats)

32. 1.5 Energy Resources
Fossil Fuels
• Almost 2/3 of all electricity is produced from
fossil fuels.
• Includes coal, natural gas, and oil.
• The energy from these fossil fuels is called fossil
energy.

33. • Fossil fuels result from the transformation of
organic residue into oil, natural gas and coal.
• Oil and natural gas come from decaying marine
animals and algae.
• Coal is a result of terrestrial plants which grew in
swamps.
• All require layers to form above them and for a
great amount of press to be on them for a very
long time.

35. • When fossil fuels burn they emit, Thermal
Energy, which can be converted into electrical
energy or Mechanical Energy (make an engine
work).
• Burning fossil fuels is also the main way
greenhouse gases are produced.
• Greenhouse gases are the main cause of global
warming.

36. • Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the main greenhouse gas
produced by the combustion of fossil fuels.
• However, methane (CH4), is 21 times more powerful
as a greenhouse gas!!!!
• Acid rain is also caused by the burning fossil fuels.
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are
gases which causes acid rain and are also produced by
acid rain.

37. Uranium
• A naturally occurring radioactive element.
• Splitting the atom releases a large amount
of energy –called nuclear energy.
• A handful of uranium releases as much
energy as 70 000kg of coal!!!
• Does not release greenhouse gases!!

38. • Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the bonds
between the particles in the nucleus of an atom.
• Drawbacks:
– Releases radioactivity so reactors must be kept
enclosed in concrete and safe from earthquakes!!
– The waste material is also radioactive for 100’s of
years

39. Geothermal
• This is the energy that comes from the internal
heat of the Earth.
• A fluid is circulated deep underground where it is
heated by molten rock. Then rises to the surface
again.
• This energy is used to generate electricity or used
to heat buildings.

40. What will our energy of the future be?
• Fossil fuels will very likely run out.
• Nuclear power has many drawbacks.
• Geothermal is very expensive to obtain.
• Your thoughts are more than welcome!!!?
• What about Biofuels? Biofuels and biomass

41. The Hydrosphere
• This is the Earth’s outer layer of water, uniting
water in all its states.
• Only 2.5 % of the water on Earth is fresh and 79%
of this fresh water is frozen.
• Includes fresh water held underground as well as
in lakes and rivers.

42. 2.1 Inland Water
• This is all the freshwater bodies foud on
continents, uniting rivers, lakes and groundwater.
• A watershed or catchment area is the area that
drains all precipitation received as runoff or
groundwater.
– Simply, the area of land from where all the inland
water drains into a large body of water.

43. Canada has
4 Main
Watershed
Areas:
1. Atlantic
2. Hudson
Bay
3. Arctic
Ocean
4. Pacific
Ocean

44. There are 3
watershed
areas we need
to know:
1. Ungava Bay
Watershed
2. Hudson Bay
Watershed
3. St. Lawrence
River
Watershed

45. Some factors that affect how water moves on a
watershed:
• Topography: shape, slope and terrain
• Geology: type depth and structure of the rock
• Climate: rain, snow, wind, temeperarure
• Vegetation
• Agriculture, industry and urban development

46. 2.4 Energy Resources
• The force of moving water is a source of great
energy.
• This is called Hydraulic Energy
• Be sure to read page 209-210 on building a dam.
We will not write it down but make sure you
understand the concept.
• Hydroelectric dams convert a river’s hydraulic
energy into electrical power.

47. • Hydraulic power is also contained in waves and
ocean currents.
• Systems are too expensive at this time!
• Read and understand but we will not take in note
form.

48. • Water Snake
• Wave turbine
• Neptune Wave Power