Chapter 7

Chapter 7: Cognition,
Language, and Intelligence

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Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon

Chapter 7 Overview

 Cognition
 Language
 Intelligence
 Explaining differences in intelligence
 What arguments have been advanced
to explain racial differences in IQ
scores?
 Beyond intelligence

Cognition
 The mental processes involved in acquiring,
storing, retrieving, and using information,
including sensation, perception, imagery,
concept formation, reasoning, decision
making, problem solving, and language


How do imagery and concepts help
us think?

 Imagery is the representation in the mind
of a sensory experience
 Images can be extremely helpful to memory
 Images are also helpful in learning and
maintaining motor skills
 The same brain areas are activated when
performing a task and mentally rehearsing
the task using imagery


How do imagery and concepts help
us think?

 Concepts are mental categories used to represent
a class or group of objects, people, events, etc.
 Concepts help us organize our thinking, order our
world, and to think and communicate with speed
and efficiency
 Two basic types of concepts
– Formal concept
 A concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal
definition, or a classification system
– Natural concept
 A concept acquired not from a definition but through
everyday perceptions and experiences


What is the role of heuristics in
decision making?

 Decision making is the process of considering
alternatives and choosing among them
– Bounded Rationality
 Boundaries or limitations around the decision making process
prevent it from being entirely logical
 So, we often base decisions on strategies and educated
guesses
– Elimination by aspects
 Decision making strategy in which alternatives are evaluated
against criteria that are ranked according to importance


decision making?

 Heuristic is a rule of thumb derived from experience and
used in decision making and problem solving, despite no
guarantee of accuracy
– Availability heuristic
 Rule stating that an event’s probability corresponds to the ease with
which the event comes to mind
– Example: Makes us overestimate the probability of some rare events,
such as winning the lottery
– Representativeness heuristic
 Decision strategy based on how closely a new situation resembles a
familiar one
– Example: Helps us choose a fast-food restaurant
– Recognition heuristic
 Strategy in which the decision making process stops as soon as a
factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognized
– Example: Influences voting behavior, such as recognizing a candidate’s
name as that of a woman


decision making?

 Framing is the way information is presented so as
to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential
loss
– Which program would you choose to combat a disease that is
expected to kill 600 people?
 If program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved
 If program B is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that all 600 will be
saved and a 2/3 probability that no people will be saved?
– Now which program would you choose?
 If program C is adopted, 400 people will die
 If program D is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that nobody will
die and a 2/3 probability that all 600 people will die
– Most people choose A and D
 But A and C are the same, and B and D are the same
 How the information is framed influences decision making


What are some basic approaches to
problem solving, and how do they
differ?
 Problem solving is the thoughts and
actions required to achieve a desired goal
– Analogy heuristic is comparing a problem to
others encountered in the past
 Working backward
– Strategy of starting with the desired goal and working
backwards to the current condition
 Means-end analysis
– Strategy in which the current position is compared with
the desired goal and a series of steps are formulated
and taken to close the gap between them


What are some basic approaches to
problem solving, and how do they
differ?
 Algorithm
– A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a
problem of a certain type
 e.g., a mathematical formula
 Functional fixedness
– Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve
problems because of tendency to view objects only in
terms of their customary functions
 Mental set
– Tendency to apply a familiar strategy to a problem without
considering the special requirements of that problem
 Confirmation bias
– Selective attention to information that confirms preexisting
beliefs

What are some important
applications of artificial intelligence
technologies?
 Artificial intelligence is the programming
of computer systems to simulate human
thinking in solving problems and in making
judgments and decisions
– Artificial neural networks
 Computer systems intended to mimic the human brain
– Expert systems
 Computer programs designed to carry out specific
functions within a limited domain


Language

 A means of communicating thoughts
and feelings, using a system of socially
shared but arbitrary symbols (sounds,
signs, or written symbols) arranged
according to rules of grammar


What are the necessary
components of any language?

 Phonemes
– The smallest units of sound in a spoken
language
 Morphemes
– The smallest units of meaning in a spoken
language
 Syntax
– The rules for arranging and combining words to
form phrases and sentences


What are the necessary
components of any language?

 Semantics
– The meaning derived from morphemes, words,
and sentences
 Pragmatics
– The patterns of intonation and social roles
associated with language


What is the evidence concerning
the capacity of animals for
understanding and producing
language?
 Chimpanzees have been taught to communicate
using sign language or symbols
– Washoe mastered about 160 sign-language signs
– Sara learned an artificial language that used plastic chips
as symbols
 Skeptics’ arguments
– Chimps are simply imitating their trainers to receive
reinforcers according to principles of operant conditioning
– Also, studies of chimp language use are subject to
experimenter bias


What is the evidence concerning
the capacity of animals for
understanding and producing
language?
 Kanzi, a pygmy chimpanzee
– learned to communicate with 200 symbols in an
artificial language and made over 13,000
utterances
– Can understand spoken English
– Studies of Kanzi control for experimenter bias
 Alex, an African gray parrot
– can answer questions about colors, objects, and
shapes, and can count
 These animals’ language use is not just
imitation or behavior shaped by conditioning

In what ways does language
influence thinking?

 Linguistic relativity hypothesis
– The language a person speaks determines the
nature of that person’s thoughts
 Benjamin Whorf’s classic example:
– Language used by Eskimo people has multiple words for
snow
– This enables Eskimos to think differently about snow
than do other people
 But, Eleanor Rosch
– Found no difference in color discrimination between
people whose language has many names for colors and
those who have few words for colors


What are the advantages and
disadvantages of learning a second
language at various ages?
 Advantage of learning two languages early
in life
– Better metalinguistic skills
 Disadvantage
– Decreased efficiency in memory tasks involving
words
– But, most bilinguals develop compensatory
strategies for word memory tasks
 They may respond more slowly, but are just as
accurate as monolinguals


What are the advantages and
disadvantages of learning a second
language at various ages?
 People who start learning a second
language at an earlier age generally reach a
higher level of proficiency
– And are more likely to speak it with an
appropriate accent
 But, it’s never too late to learn a second
language
– Study of immigrants to USA
 Ability to learn English is associated with educational
background
 College-educated adults can attain a high level of
proficiency

English Proficiency in Chinese- and
Spanish-Speaking Immigrants to
the United States


Intelligence

– An individual’s ability to understand
complex ideas, to adapt effectively
to the environment, to learn from
experience, to engage in various
forms of reasoning, and to
overcome obstacles through mental
effort


How do the views of Spearman,
Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg
differ with regard to the definition
of intelligence?

 Charles Spearman believed that intelligence
is composed of a general ability, g, that
underlies all intellectual functions
 He observed that people who are bright in
one area tend to be bright in other areas as
well


of intelligence?
 Louis Thurstone rejected Spearman’s notion of g
 He proposed seven primary mental abilities
– Verbal comprehension
– Numerical ability
– Spatial relations
– Perceptual speed
– Word fluency
– Memory
– Reasoning
 He argued that a profile of strengths and
weaknesses on the seven primary abilities is more
accurate than a single IQ score

of intelligence?
 Howard Gardner proposed that there are
eight independent forms of intelligence
 He developed this theory from studies of
different types of brain damage that affect
some forms of intelligence but leave others
intact
 He also studied savant syndrome
– A combination of mental retardation and unusual
talent or ability


Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind


of intelligence?
 Robert Sternberg proposed that there are
three types of intelligence
– Componential intelligence
 Analytical intelligence; measured by most intelligence
tests
– Experiential intelligence
 Creative thinking and problem solving
– Contextual intelligence
 Practical intelligence, common sense


Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence


In what ways do achievement,
aptitude, and intelligence tests
differ?
 Achievement tests
– Measure what a person has learned up to a
certain point in his or her life
 Aptitude tests
– Predict future performance in a particular setting
or on a specific task
 Intelligence tests
– Measure general intellectual ability


Why are reliability, validity,
standardization, and cultural bias
important in intelligence testing?
 Reliability
– Ability of a test to yield consistent results
 Validity
– Ability of a test to measure what it is intended to
measure
 Standardization
– Establishing norms for comparing the scores of
people who will take the test in the future
– Administering tests using a prescribed procedure


What did Binet, Terman, and
Weschler contribute to the study of
intelligence?
 Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
– Developed the first intelligence test
– Goal was to assess the intellectual potential of
individual schoolchildren
 Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale
– Used a score called mental age
 Based on number of items a child got right compared
with average number right by children of various ages
 If mental age was two years ahead of chronological
age, child was termed “bright”
 If mental age was two years behind chronological age,
child was termed “retarded”

intelligence?
 William Stern
– Devised the intelligence quotient (IQ)
 Louis Terman
– Revised the Binet-Simon test
– Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
– Established norms, or age-based averages, based
on the scores of a large number of children


intelligence?
 David Wechsler
– Developed the first individual intelligence test for
individuals over age 16
 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
– Also developed a widely-used test for children
 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
– Consists of 5 verbal and 10 nonverbal subtests


How do individuals who are gifted
and those with mental retardation
differ from others?

 The frequencies of intelligence scores
conform to a normal curve
– Approximately 50% of IQ scores fall between 90
and 110
– Approximately 68% fall between 85 and 115
– Approximately 95% fall between 70 and 130
– Approximately 2% fall above 130 and 2% below
70


The normal curve


differ from others?

 Terman (1925) studied 1528 people with
IQs from 135 to 200
 Compared to the general population, high
IQ individuals
– Have better mental health
– Earn more academic degrees
– Achieve higher occupational status and higher
income
– Are better adjusted personally and socially
– Are healthier

differ from others?
 Mental retardation is subnormal intelligence
reflected by an IQ below 70 and by severely
deficient adaptive functioning
 Causes include
– Brain injuries
– Chromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndrome
– Chemical deficiencies
– Hazards present during prenatal development
 Degrees of retardation
– Mild: IQ 55-70
– Moderate: IQ 40-54
– Severe: IQ 25-39
– Profound: IQ < 25Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon

Explaining differences in
intelligence
 There is a wide range of differences in
intellectual functioning in our everyday
interactions with other people. What
accounts for these differences?


What is the evidence supporting
the nature and nurture sides of the
IQ controversy?

 Nature-nurture debate
– The debate over whether intelligence and other
traits are primarily the result of heredity or
environment


IQ controversy?
 Twin studies
– Identical twins
obtain very similar
scores on IQ tests,
even when raised
apart
– This provides
evidence that
individual
differences in
intelligence are
strongly influenced
by genes Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon

IQ controversy?
 Scarr and Weinberg adoption study
– 140 African American and interracial children
adopted into highly-educated White families
– Average IQ was 106, above the national average
– The earlier children were adopted, the higher
their IQs on average
– Results suggest that intelligence can be modified
by environment


IQ controversy?
 Craig Ramey’s
intervention study
– Infants of low-IQ, low-
income mothers
– Randomly assigned to
40-hour-per-week
special daycare and
preschool programs or a
control group
– Children in the program
scored significantly
higher in IQ through
age 12


What arguments have been
advanced to explain racial
differences in IQ scores?
 Historically, Blacks score about 15 points lower than
Whites on IQ tests in USA
 Arthur Jensen (1969) attributed the IQ gap to
genetic differences
 Findings by Ramey and others suggest that
differences result from poverty and lack of
educational opportunities
 Minority children are more likely to be identified as
gifted when culture-fair intelligence tests are
used
 Racial differences in IQ scores may also be
explained by stereotype threat

Example item on a culture-
fair test


In what ways do the cognitive
abilities of males and females
differ?
 Girls generally have larger vocabularies and
outperform boys in reading and writing
 Boys generally do better in science and math
– Some research indicates that hormonal differences
contribute to the gap in math achievement
– But others argue that social influences are more important
 Boys generally outperform girls in some spatial
tasks
 Overall, gender differences for cognitive variables
are small
– And differences within each gender are greater than
differences between genders


Beyond intelligence

 There are many aspects of cognitive
functioning that are not captured by
standardized tests of intelligence.


What are the components of
emotional intelligence?

 Emotional intelligence is the ability to
apply knowledge about emotions to
everyday life
– Includes awareness of one’s emotions, ability to
manage emotions, self-motivation, empathy,
and ability to handle relationships
 Peter Salovey and David Pizarro
– Argue that emotional intelligence is just as
important as the kind of intelligence measured in
IQ tests


How does creativity differ from
other forms of cognition, and how
has it been measured?
 Creativity is the ability to produce original,
appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or
solutions to problems
 There is a weak to moderate correlation
between creativity and IQ
 J. P. Guilford suggests that creativity
involves divergent thinking
– The ability to produce multiple ideas or solutions
to a problem for which there is no agreed-on
solution


How does creativity differ from
other forms of cognition, and how
has it been measured?
 Creative people share several characteristics
that distinguish them from less creative
people, including
– Expertise in a specific area built up over years of
study and practice
– Openness to new experiences and ideas
– Inherent curiosity
– Independent thinking


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