1. Political
Office in the
Mid-Late Roman
Republic
Theresa Cho

2. Roman Republic Background
• The Roman Republic spanned from 509 BCE to 27 BCE.
• It began with the overthrow of monarchy led by Lucius Junius Brutus (ancestor of the Brutus
who assassinated Julius Caesar).
• The government of the Republic was originally dominated by the Patricians (Roman
aristocracy), but over time, the plebeians (Romans of non-aristocratic birth) gained more
influence and power within the Senate.
• The main body of government was the Senate (ran by senators)—which worked with other
assemblies with a system of checks and balances. Once a man was admitted as a senator (he
automatically became one after holding the most junior magistracy), he was senator for life.
• The Senate was responsible for passing decrees (called the Senatus Consultum), which were
implemented by magistrates. It also oversaw foreign policy and to some extent, military policy,
in the appointment of military commanders.
• Roman citizens had two choices when running for political office:
1) Start as a Tribunus Plebis (Tribune of the People)
2) Follow the Cursus Honorum (Course of Honour)—This was a series of steps on the political
ladder. One would usually start as a military tribune, then advance as a quaestor, aedile,
praetor, and ultimately the consul.
• Other offices that one could hold outside the Cursus Honorum were:
1) The Censor 2)Exceptional cases: Dictator and Master of the Horse.
- Only Roman men citizens could run for office. Office was usually held for a year, with the
exception of a few.

3. Engraving of a
Roman Senate
Meeting

4. A Note on
Legislative
During the Roman Republic, there were two types of legislative assemblies:
1) The Comitia (committee)—The comitia included all Roman citizens.
Assemblies
This was the type of assembly called up to ratify laws, elect magistrates
and try judicial cases.
 The comitia was further divided into two categories:
a) The Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assembly)—It arranged citizens based on
geographical area.
b) The Comitia Centuriata (Centuriate Assembly)—Arranged citizens
based on class—wealth and status.
2) The Concilium (Council)—This was just an assembly of a specific group
of citizens.
e.g.) The Plebeian council— This council was composed of Roman
citizens of plebeian heritage who gathered to elect Plebeian magistrates,
enact laws only applicable for plebeians and try cases involving
plebeians.
*Note: Not all families of the ruling class of Rome were Patricians.
There were also many powerful noble political families which had plebeian roots, such as the
Caecilii Metelli.

5. Tribunus Plebis
(Tribune of the
This was a very powerful political office even though it was not part of the Cursus
Honorum. The Tribunes of the People)
People were not considered magistrates, but rather, officials.
The role of the tribune in government was to represent the interests of the common people
(the plebs) against the arbitrary power of the Senate and the magistrates (mostly made up of
the elite ruling class).
Each year, ten members were elected by the Plebeian Council. Only a man of plebeian blood
could be a tribune of the people.
In law, the body of a tribune was sacrosanct—no one was allowed to attack him. Whoever
attacked a tribune could be executed.
The People’s Tribunes had a special right called the ius auxiliandi, which enabled them to
provide aid to any plebeian from the power of a magistrate.
 They were also given the right to propose legislation, which could be passed if the proposed
law was popular.
 The special power of the tribune lay in his “veto.” He was allowed to veto anyone
(including senators, magistrates and other tribunes) except for the dictator (if there was one).
Veto means “I forbid.”
Because tribunes were regarded as the champions of the common people, it was important
that people had access to them at all times, so they were not allowed to lock the doors of their
houses. They were also not allowed to be absent from the city for an entire day.

6. Famous
Tribunes of
the People
The
Gracchi
Brothers:
Tiberius
and Gaius
Gracchus

7. The Offices
of the Cursus
Honorum

8. Tribunus Militum
 Each year, twenty-four young menTribune)
(Military were elected to serve as
military tribunes.
Military tribunes were elected by the Comitia Tributa (the
Tribal Assembly of Roman people based on geographical area).
 By being a military tribune, one could gain military
experience.
Technically, it was not necessary to be a military tribune in
order to advance on the ladders of the Cursus Honorum.
However, military experience was always an asset, so many
young men ambitious for political office would start out as a
military tribune.
Of the 24 tribunes, six were distributed to each of the two
consuls’s two legions. They held the rank of legion officers.

9. Tribuni Militi
(Military
Tribunes)
Militar
y
Tribune
s in
Uniform

10. Quaestor
• The quaestorship was technically considered to be the
first step of the Cursus Honorum. It was the most junior of
all the magistracies.
•Twenty quaestors were elected every year by the Roman
people through the Comitia Tributa (the same assembly
through which military tribunes were elected).
•Their responsibility was mainly financial—they
administered the finances of the state treasury. However,
they also supervised public games as an extra task.
•One quaestor often accompanied a governor to help the
governor oversee finances of the province given to the
governor.
•Being quaestor automatically enrolled that office holder
into the Senate—he became a senator; however usually as
a backbencher who was not allowed to voice his opinions
during debates.

11. Quaestor
Since quaestors
were official
magistrates, they
were entitled to
wear the toga
praetexta (the
toga reserved for
magistrates
only).

12. Aedilis (Aedile)
• Four aediles were elected each year (two of which had to be of plebeian heritage [the Plebeian
Aediles], while the other two could be either Plebeian or Patrician—these were called the Curule
Aediles.
•The Plebeian Aediles were elected by the Concilium Plebis (the Plebeian Council).
•The Curule Aediles, on the other hand, were elected by the Comitia Tributa (the assembly that
arranged all Roman citizens based on geographic area). Unlike the Plebeian Aediles, Curule
Aediles were vested with imperium (in this case, it was the executive power given to them by the
Senate which enabled the Curule Aediles to do anything that they considered would be beneficial
to the state.)
• The aediles looked after the dreary aspects of city management—corn supplies, municipal
regulations, sewage treatment, maintenance of buildings, street sanitation etc.
•Another important responsibility of the aedile was to provide public entertainment for
everyone—in the form of public games, feasts, mock battles or gladiatorial shows. The games
were often very, very expensive, and a lot of aediles ran into debt while in office.
• It was not necessary to be an aedile to run for Praetor (the next rung on the political ladder);
however, many ambitious Romans would still run for aedile in order to make themselves well-
known and to shore up public support for the future.
- People were more likely to remember and vote for those who provided good games and food.

13. Praetor
Eight praetors were elected each year by the Comitia Centuriata (the assembly of all the Roman
people organized by wealth and status.)
Praetors were mostly responsible for presiding over law courts; they served as judges.
It was the job of the praetors to take on the duty of the consuls if the consuls were absent from Rome.
It was the praetors’ responsibility to make sure that people obeyed the laws. In Rome, the Praetor
Urbanus (Urban Praetor) was responsible for hearing cases in the city—he was not allowed to be away
from Rome for more than 10 days.
The Praetor Peregrinus was responsible for hearing cases for foreigners living in Italy. The other
respective praetors were assigned to their own provinces.
Outside the city, Praetors were entitled to six bodyguards, called lictors, who carried ceremonial rods
with axes fixed to them. Within Rome, Praetors could only have two lictors.
Praetors had imperium (in this case, slightly different from the imperium given to the Curule Aediles;
praetorial imperium was also a state-conferred power, but it allowed the Praetors to command and raise
armies legally.)
After serving a year as a praetor, the magistrate could become pro-praetor (having all the powers of a
praetor) and be sent by the Senate to govern foreign provinces and become governors.
- Many ambitious Praetors who ran into debt while being an aedile looked forward to becoming
governors, because becoming governors supplied them with wealth from their provinces.

14. *Consul*
 Only two consuls were elected each year. This office was considered as the most prestigious of
all the magistracies. Many old Roman families would boast of the number of family members
who had held the office of consuls in order to enhance the family name and prestige.
 The consulship was the highest rung on the political ladder. Consuls were elected by the
Comitia Centuriata (the same assembly that elected the Praetors).
 Their responsibility included convening and presiding over discussions in the Senate. They
could also introduce legislation, and they often represented Rome in foreign policy. During
times of conflict, the two consuls also became generals—each one in charge of two legions.
To run or serve as consul, one had to be at least 42 years old and had to have held the office of
praetor.
A senator was allowed to run for consul again after being consul; however, ten years had to
have elapsed before they do so—this was to prevent corruption and power-grabbing.
 Like praetors, consuls were allowed lictors as body-guards (since they also had imperium).
However, instead of having just six lictors, they had twelve.
After their term of office was over, consuls could also become proconsuls (similar to pro-
praetor except with powers of the consul) and be sent out to govern a province.
Since years during the Roman Republic were referred to as “The Year of the Consulship of ...
and...,” being consul ensured that one’s name became ingrained into Roman history for
posterity.

15. Famous Consuls
Marcus Tullius Cicero
(Consul of 63 BCE—exposed the Catiline Gaius Marius
Conspiracy) Consul for Seven Times (Unconstitutional;
however, he was also well-known for his military reforms)

16. Gold Coin of a Roman Consul Walking with Lictors

17. A Consul on Horseback Preceded by His Lictors

18. Censor part of the
The office of a censor was not really
Cursus Honorum; however, this was also a much
esteemed, prestigious office.
Two censors were elected and occupied the office for
a term of five years (called a lustrum).
To be a censor, one had to be a consul first and be
voted in by the Comitia Centuriata.
Censors had the right to expel or induce anyone into
the Senate. If they thought a senator was unfit to be a
senator, they could expel him.
Their responsibilities also included governing the
moral life of the Roman people and conducting the
census to gain information about the number of all
Roman citizens (important for conscription) living in
Italy and abroad.
It was also part of their job to manage and fund public

19. Cato the
Censor Marcus Porcius
Cato the Elder—
He was also well
known for his
manuals on
farming.

20. Princeps Senatus
The Princeps Senatus was a title given to a senator rather than a political office.
The senator who was the Princeps Senatus had no imperium whatsoever, except
for an extra degree of respect and some privileges accorded to him.
If translated, Princeps Senatus means “First Citizen or Leader of the Senate.”
Whoever held the title was deeply respected, and in any discussion or debate
within the senate, the Princeps Senatus was always invited to be the first one to voice
his thoughts.
 The Princeps Senatus was not voted in, but rather chosen by the pair of censors.
Since the censors changed every five years, the holder of “Princeps Senatus” also
changed every five years.
- However, the new censors could accord him another five years to hold the title if
they wished.
Only Patrician Senators could be the Princeps Senatus—whoever held the title
also had to have an impeccable political record, untarnished reputation and
commanded a lot of respect from his peers.

21. Notable Principes Senatus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
- A general best known for defeating - He established the colonies of Parma and
Hannibal during the Second Punic War. Modena as well as constructed the Via Aemilia
(a really important road in Northern Italy).

22. Dictator
•The office of the dictator was very special, and
only implemented in very special
circumstances—mostly during times of crisis
(war).
• Since consuls could be very competitive with
each other (if they were elected from different
factions) they were not that effective in
managing major crises; they would have
disagreed on policies and ideologies.
•An elected dictator was a Senate-appointed
man who could only hold his office for six
months or less—if the state emergency was
solved in a short time.
•A special thing about the dictator was that he

23. Notable Dictators
Lucius Quinctius
Cincinnatus
--An early Republican
dictator who was
CLICK HERE TO regarded as a virtuous
Roman hero.
Click ADD TEXT —Unlike later
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Republican
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dictators, Cincinnatus
was not power-hungry;
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he willingly relinquished
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his dictatorial powers
after sixteen days and
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returned to his farm to
here to add text.
plow his fields.
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here to add text.
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here to add text.

24. Notable
Dictators Lucius Cornelius Sulla
—Sulla was an
unconstitutional dictator
who made the Senate give
him a dictatorship without
time limit. He simply
retired after he grew tired
of politics.
Under his dictatorship,
Rome underwent a reign of
terror.

25. Notable Dictators
Julius Caesar
—He was proclaimed
“Dictator Perpetuo”
(Dictator in
Perpetuity).
This was probably a
factor that
contributed to his
assassination in 44
BCE.

26. Magister Equitum
(Master of the
 The Master of the Horse was appointed by
the dictator.
Horse)
 His term expired along with the dictator’s.
The Master of the Horse was granted some
imperium—typically equivalent to that of a
Praetor’s.
If the dictator was absent, the Master of the
Horse assumed the powers of the dictator and
governed in his stead.
Generally, one should have held the office of
a praetor previously, in order to be appointed
Master of the Horse, but this was not

27. A Notable Master
of the Horse
Marcus Antonius (Marc Antony)
While Julius Caesar was dictator, he appointed Marc Antony as his
Master of the Horse. Antony was in charge of Rome while Caesar
was off fighting his enemies during the civil war. As a Master of the
Horse, Antony was not very effective; he often resorted to violence
to put down conflicts and the city descended into a state of anarchy.

28. Political
Factions
During the Roman Republic, there were no recognizable political
parties; however, many powerful senatorial families usually allied
themselves into factions—either with the populares or the optimates.
The populares appealed to the interests of the people, and their power
support stemmed from tribunes and the common people.
The optimates (also known as the boni [good men]) belonged to the
ultra-conservative faction, whose power came from the support of the
wealthy and the old aristocratic families. Their interests lay in preserving
the old privileges of the nobles.

29. Diagram of the Cursus Honorum

30. Bibliography
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31. Bibliography
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32. Bibliography—
Pictures
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Eugene_Guillaume_-
_the_Gracchi.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/ff/Senate_Meeting.jpg
http://www.bible-history.com/archaeology/rome/military-tribunes-1.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Dr%C3%A4kt%2C_Romare%2C_Nordi
sk_familjebok.png
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Cicero.PNG
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marius_Glyptothek_Munich_319.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Consul_et_lictores.jpg
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/military_parade_Rome.jpg
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_vifhOfEpoe4/Sl9bvCivV2I/AAAAAAAAGuY/xwm7JJN8Y5o/s400/cat
o_elder_234_149_bc_toga_hi.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Scipio_Africanus_the_Elder.png
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_I.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Cincinnatus_statue.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Sulla_Glyptothek_Munich_309.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Julius_caesar.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/M_Antonius.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Cursus.png
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg

33. Finis (The End)
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