1. Lesson 7
Managing Power & Politics
According to Handy (1993), power and influence are central to organizations and interactions of
all people. Handy (1993) views organizations as a fine weave of influence patterns whereby
individuals or groups seek to influence others to think or act in particular ways. Effective leaders
have learnt how to use power wisely to influence others. In organizations, managers are
entrusted with power in their respective positions and are perceived to have authority. However,
managers are not the only holders of power as individual ability and leadership potential is
inherent in many, resulting in many mangers being involved in a continuous struggle to maintain
their power and authority.
I. What is power?
A. Power is “Something that person A has over another person B, to an extent that he can get B to
do something B would not other wise do” Dahl (1957).
B. Power is linked to influence
Influence is “the effect of power exerted: a person exercising such power.” (Chambers 20th
Century Dictionary)
“The process whereby A seeks to modify the attitudes and behaviors of B” Handy (1993).
II. What are the various sources of power?
Charles Handy (1993) outlines a number of possible sources of power that give one the ability to
influence others:
A. Physical power
This is the power of superior force. That of a bully or the tyrant or commander of the army. In
few work organizations is physical power the source of individual influence. No organization has
a right to detain an individual by force (except for those involved in public safety, prison service
or some mental hospitals). Physical power is really used as a last resort when other sources of
power appear ineffective.
B. Resource power
Possession of valued resource is a useful basis for influence. Another term for it is reward power.
This is the power source implicit for most calculated contracts. In order for this kind of power to
be effective:
There must be control of the resources, and
The potential recipient must desire those resources.
C. Position power
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2. This is also known as ‘legal’ or ‘legitimate’ power and comes from one’s position in a group or
organization. This is power residing in the position rather than in the individual. The value of
this power really depends on the value placed by the guarantor of the position. If the occupant of
a particular role either:
Does not receive backing from the organization, or
the organization is not seen as controlling any desired or coercive resources,
Then the occupant will find that influence attempts will fail, because their power source is
invalid. Position power gives the occupant potential control over some invisible assets such as
information, right of access and right to organize.
D. Expert power
Handy (1993) describes expert power as, “The power that is vested in someone because of their
acknowledged expertise.
E. Personal power
This is more generally known as charisma and resides in the person and their personality. It can
be enhanced by position or by expert status.
F. Negative power
Handy (1993) points out that all these sources of power can be used legitimately or
illegitimately. If they are used in the appropriate domain they are regarded as legitimate. If used
outside the domain, the power is regarded as disruptive and illegitimate. This is the negative use
of power.
Negative power is the capacity to stop things from happening, to delay them, to distort them or
disrupt them. Negative power is latent; it does not operate all the time. It operates at times of low
morale, irritation, stress, or frustration at the failure of other influence attempts. The use of
negative power breeds lack of trust by the superior for the subordinate.
G. Departmental power
Cowling et al’s (1988) comment that some departments can have more power than others can be
seen in the distribution of perks and resources within an organization, and which departments
take a more dominant role in meetings and decision-making.
SELF CHECK QUESTION:
Do any of the above aspects of power apply to you in any way?
III. What are some unseen methods of influence?
The above six power bases allow people to use one or more methods of influence. These can be
divided into two classes - Overt and Unseen. Overt methods of influence include force,
exchange, and persuasion. Unseen methods of influence include Ecology: This method is
available, often neglected, and sometimes abused by every manager. In this instance, ecology is
the study of the relationship between an environment and its organisms. As politicians have also
discovered, we cannot afford to neglect the ecology of the organization, or the relationship of the
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3. environment to individual behavior or attitudes. Behavior and attitudes occur within an
environment that affects them.
A. Physical environment.
It is possible to manipulate the physical environment in order to somewhat control certain
behaviour:
1. Noise affects performance on complicated tasks
2. Variety relieves monotony, provides stimulation and contributes to improved performance
3. Seating patterns tend to affect interaction patterns
4. Open-plan offices are popular and improve communications when the work is routine
5. Segregation prohibits communication
6. Dangerous surroundings increase tension and lower productivity
B. Psychological and sociological environment.
In the psychological and sociological environments, Handy says that
1. Small groups are easier to participate in than large groups
2. Specific, challenging but attainable targets tend to produce commitments irrespective of their
specific content
3. Increased interaction leads to increased sentiments – either favorable or hostile
4. Participation increases commitment if the individual considers participation worthwhile and
legitimate.
Therefore, to adjust the environment in order to remove constraints or facilitate some aspect of
behavior is indirect influence. In short, ecology sets the conditions for behavior. The effective
manager in an organization will check the environment before they act.
C. Magnetism.
Magnetism is the invisible but felt pull of a stronger force, and is the application of personal
power. We have all felt the desire, perhaps sometimes illogical, to work with and for someone.
This method of influence is difficult to measure and can be very relative, but it cannot be
ignored. As leaders, very often the people we attract are those who are like us. As John Maxwell
(1998) states,
“Whom you get is not determined by what you want. It is determined by who you are…in
most situations; you draw people to you who possess the same qualities you do. That is the law
of magnetism: Who you are is who you attract.”
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Which methods of influence are predominantly used in your organization?
Is there any illegitimate use of power in your organization?
IV. What is organizational politics?
A. Politics is “the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the
organization.” Bronston and Allen (1977) in Cowling et al (1988).
B. Politics often has a distinct result as its goal.
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4. “…Organizational politics refers to activities within organizations designed to acquire, develop,
or use power in a conscious way to obtain one’s preferred outcomes or to manipulate a situation
for one’s own purposes.”
Cherrington (1989).
Pfeffer (1981) notes that ‘organizations, particularly large ones, are like governments in that they
are fundamentally political entities. To understand them, one needs to understand organizational
politics, just as to understand governments, one needs to understand government politics.’
V. In what areas do organizations tend to be political rather than rational?
Some research carried out by Miles (1980) identified several areas where organizations tend to
be political rather than rational:
A. Resources
There is a direct relationship between the amount of politics and how critical and scarce the
resources are. Politics is also encouraged with the entry of new “unclaimed” resources.
B. Decisions
Ambiguous, uncertain and long-range strategic decisions lead to more politics than routine
decisions.
C. Goals
The more ambiguous and complex the goals become, the more politics there will be.
D. Technology and external environment
In general, the more complex the internal technology of the organization operating in a
turbulent external environment the more like there is to be politics.
E. Change
Reorganization, planned organizational development, or even unplanned change will
encourage political maneuvering.
Since these elements are prevalent in our organizations today, one can see why there is so much
politics. Miles (1980) states that “in short, conditions that threaten the status of the powerful or
encourage the efforts of those wishing to increase their power bases will stimulate the intensity
of organizational politics and increase the proportion of decision-making behaviors that can be
classified as political as opposed to rational.”
Mintzberg (1983) points out that when these games are carried too far, they turn the whole
organization into a political cauldron and divert it from its main task. Mintzberg notes the
choices that Hirschman presents to participants in a social system as:
Stay and contribute – this is seen as loyalty
Leave – meaning to ‘take my marbles and go’
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5. Stay and try to change the system
As we explore organizational politics it is important to remember that one’s participation in it is
often a reflection of one’s source. Do you see God as your source of promotion or man? Do you
trust him to change situations or are you relying on your own flesh? Manipulative tactics often
take place when we try to change people or situations apart from the Holy Spirit. Many of us
have been manipulative since childhood and are unaware of it. Having said this, Jesus instructs
us to be as wise as serpents and as innocent as doves. There is positive politics, which is where
one uses one’s understanding of the political environment for noble purposes.
VI. What are some commonly used political strategies.
Once it has been understood that organizations are in reality large political systems, one can see
why there are many strategies for gaining power within these systems. Some of these strategies
are healthy whilst others are based on manipulation and lack integrity. Nevertheless, it is
important to be aware of them, partly so that you are not always a victim of them.
Luthan, Yulk and Falbe, and Mintzberg have all increased our understanding of commonly used
political games and tactics. I have listed a number of these below. As you go through them
reflect on which ones you have seen being used, which ones you have been a victim of and
which ones you have sometimes used.
A. Some of Luthan’s political strategies for gaining power in organizations.
1. Maintaining maneuverability
2. Promoting limited communication
3. Exhibiting confidence
4. Controlling access to information and persons
5. Making activities central and non-substitutable
6. Creating a sponsor –protégé relationship
7. Stimulating competition among ambitious subordinates
8. Neutralizing potential opposition
9. Making strategic replacements
10. Building personal stature
11. Employing trade-offs
12. Using research data to support one’s own point of view
13. Restricting communication about real intentions
14. Withdrawing from petty disputes
B. Yulk and Falbe’s 8 Political Tactics.
Yulk and Falbe (1990) recently carried out research on political tactics and derived eight that are
common in organizations today. These can also be termed influence tactics.
1. Pressure tactics – the use of demands, threats, or intimidation to convince you to comply
with a request or to support a proposal.
2. Upward appeals – persuading you that higher management, or appeals to higher
management for assistance in gaining your compliance with the request approve the
request.
3. Exchange tactics – making explicit or implicit promises that you will receive rewards or
tangible benefits if you comply with a request of support a proposal, or remind you of a
prior favor to be reciprocated.
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6. 4. Coalition tactics – seeking the aid of others to persuade you to do something or using the
support of others as an argument for you to also agree
5. Ingratiating tactics – seeking to get you in a good mood or to think favorably of the
influence agent before asking you to do something
6. Rational persuasion – using logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade you that a
proposal or request is viable and likely to result in the attainment of task objectives
7. Inspirational appeals – making an emotional request or proposal that arouses enthusiasm
by appealing to your values and ideas, or by increasing your confidence that you can do
it.
8. Consultation tactics – seeking your participation in making a decision or planning how to
implement a proposed policy, strategy, or change.
C. Mintzberg’s Political Games.
Mintzberg (1983), in his comprehensive review of power and politics in organizations, has
identified thirteen political games that by his definition involve illegitimate use of power, but
many of which use legitimate authority as part of the play. I have outlined just a few of them
below:
• Games to resist authority
The insurgency games – to sabotage the intentions of superiors
• Games to counter resistance
The counter-insurgency games – more rules, regulations and punishments
• Games to build power-bases
The sponsorship game – hitching oneself to a useful superior, a star
The alliance game – finding useful colleagues
The empire game – building coalitions of subordinates
The budgeting game – getting control of resources
The expertise game – flaunting feigning expertise
The lording game – flaunting one’s authority
Discussion question
In a group, explore and give examples of how the political strategies mentioned above may
each manifest in the home, in organizations and in society at large.
Highlight why people use them and the consequences thereof.
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