CRIS LUTHER's RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES COMPILATION

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, Prepared by C.LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.
Subject: RESEARCH METHODS, Professor: DR. HELEN B. AGGABAO
Philippine Colleges of Health and Sciences Inc., School of Graduate Studies | 1
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Course Outline Provided by
DR. HELEN B. AGGABAO
On the Subject, RESEARCH METHODS
Philippine Colleges of Health Sciences, Inc., Manila
School of Graduate Studies
Prepared by
CHRISTIAN LUTHER FABIA, B.S.N.,R.N.
Master of Arts in Nursing
Major in Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing
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As a Registered Nurse and a student at PCHS-Graduate School, I am expected to
understand the basic to complex processes of scientific research in preparation to conduct my
own scientific investigation in the future. This quest for higher learning I believe is intended to
base professional practice on emerging evidences from research, that is, to adopt an evidence-
based practice (which is broadly defined as the use of best clinical evidence in making patient
care decisions), and such evidences typically come from research conducted by nurses and other
health care professionals.
Through the guidance of my mentors at the Philippine Colleges of Health Sciences, I
am certain that I will be able to make a significant contribution to my profession
through research.
And, the realization of this aspiration begins with thoroughly understanding the concepts in
Research Methods.
The Student
About the Compilation
This compilation of various information on generally acceptable knowledge, concepts, principles, theories
and practices in RESEARCH. It adapts contents from various publicly acknowledged publications, authors, theorists,
authorities and practitioners whose works are commonly utilized in the academe and practice, and are frequently-tested
competencies locally and abroad.
The works of these authors, theorists, authorities and practitioners are indispensable in learning research methodologies
as they are indispensable in the completeness of this compilation.
Care has been taken to confirm accuracy of the information presented and describes generally accepted
practices. However the student who prepared this material is not responsible for errors or omissions or for any
consequences from application of the information in this compilation.
The primary goal of the student is to familiarize concepts in the subject RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES based
on the COURSE OUTLINE provided by his Graduate School Professor DR. HELEN B. AGGABAO. It is not
intended for commercial publication and resources were acquired legally.
It is his great pleasure that this compilation be reproduced for reference of other students aiming to thoroughly
understand RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES.

- Contents -
Part 1: Introduction to research and research utilization
Definition and significance of research
Link between research and practice
Overview of research utilization
Interdisciplinary and collaborative research
Overview of research methods
Part 2: Initial steps of the research process
Purpose and problem statements
Variables of the Study
Literature review
Framework and Paradigm of the Study
Research questions and hypotheses
Part 3: Research Design
Ethical design of research
Sampling
Designing the Research Instrument
Study validity and elements of good design
Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument
Part 4: Measurement and data collection
Measurement concepts and strategies
Data Collection
Part 5: Data analysis
Statistical theory review
Types of statistics and their uses
Qualitative analyses
Interpretation of findings
Part 6: Communication of Findings and Utilization of Research
Ways to communicate research
Critiquing research
Theories of utilization
Barriers and solutions to utilization
Role in research utilization
Part 7: Preparing the Research Report
Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report.
Check these helpful Graphical Bullets:
Means the concept proceeding is significant to Nursing
Means the proceeding concept is important

PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH AND RESEARCH UTILIZATION
1.1 Definition and Significance of Research
The word research is derived from the old French word cerchier, meaning to seek or search.
The prefix “re” means “again” and signifies replication of the search. One seeks new knowledge or to directly utilize knowledge
specific to life situations.
It is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or problems. Research is also defined as a studious
inquiry or examination, investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted
theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical applications of such new or revised theories or laws.
Research in the broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems so that its ultimate goal is to
develop, refine and expand a body of knowledge.
The Philippine Nurses Association defines research as: “An honest, scientific investigation undertaken for the
purpose of discovering new facts or establishing new relationships among facts already known which will contribute to the
present body of knowledge and can lead to an effective solution of existing problems. It involves careful or critical thinking to
revise or revalidate accepted conclusions and previously held concepts or to establish generalizations or principles (PNA,
1995)”.
Nursing research is a tool of science, its components are:
a. Order and system- process wherein the researcher moves in a systematic fashion, from identification of the
problem to the conclusions and recommendations.
b. Control- means the imposition of conditions in the research situation, to minimize bias and maximize the precision
and validity of data gathered.
c. Empiricism- refers to the gathering of evidence and relying on one’s own senses.
d. Generalizations- means that the research findings may be applied to a situation or population larger than the one
studied.
1.2 Link between research and practice
Research and its Significance to Evidence-based Practice (EBP)
The ultimate goal of nursing is to provide evidence-based practice that provides quality outcomes for patients, healthcare
providers and the healthcare system (Craig and Smythe 2007; Pearson et al., 2007).
Evidence-based Practice is the conscientious use of current best evidence of making clinical decisions about patient care. It
evolves from the integration of the best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient needs and values (Institute of
Medicine 2001; Sachett, et al., 2000)
It is a problem-solving approach to clinical practice that integrates:
Research- answering clinical questions utilizing relevant evidences (patient history, assessment methods, healthcare
resources) and scientific approaches; Clinical expertise; Patient’s preferences and values
Ultimately, the significance of research in nursing practice is to provide an evidence-based clinical decision for
better patient outcomes and create best practices.
Research and its Significance to Quality Assurance (QA)
The goal of QA programs is to continually monitor the quality of care in an institution and thereby generate data that can be
used as basis for determining institutional policies and procedures, administrative decisions and budget justifications. This
database can be used for future planning.

Nursing research therefore is a tool use to expand and generate knowledge through scientific investigation of
healthcare issues. By building findings of reported research, a study can be replicated or the applicability of results to practice
in a given institution can be determined.
1.3 Overview of research utilization

 “Research utilization is a process by which scientifically produced knowledge is transferred to
practice" (Brown, 1999).
Utilization of research in nursing refers to the actual systematic implementation of a scientifically sound, research-
based innovation in a health care setting with an accompanying process to access the outcomes of the clinical change.
Three categories of utilization are identified:
 Instrumental research utilization- Is a direct use of research knowledge, it is the concrete application of
research in clinical practice; either in making specific decisions about patient care, or as the knowledge
guiding specific interventions.
 Instrumental use- Research is often translated into a useable form (e.g., clinical practice guidelines or
protocols). Conceptual research utilization is the cognitive use of research where the research may be used
to change opinion or mind set about a specific practice area, but not necessarily particular actions. This
indirect application of research is believed to occur more often in practice than instrumental use, but in a less
perceivable way.
 Symbolic (or persuasive) research utilization- Addresses the use of research knowledge as a political
tool in order to influence or legitimate policies and decisions.
Important:
Although, I have discussed in the previous section about the significance of research to Evidence-based practice
as a tool of investigation, nurse researchers should not confuse EBP (Evidence Based Practice) with research utilization.
While research utilization overlaps with some of the same philosophic threadworks of EBP, EBP goes beyond just the rigorous
scientific research steps.
 Research Utilization refers to the review and critique of scientific research, and then the application of the findings
to clinical practice.
 Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) represents a broader concept. When clinicians use the EBP approach, they go
beyond the expertise of clinicians and researchers, and consider the patient's preferences and values to guide patient
care.
1.4 Interdisciplinary and collaborative research
Interdisciplinary involves the combining of two or more academic disciplines into one activity (e.g. a research project). It is
about creating something new by crossing boundaries, and thinking across them. It is related to an interdiscipline or an
interdisciplinary field, which is an organizational unit that crosses traditional boundaries between academic
disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions have emerged.
Originally, the term interdisciplinary is applied within education and training didactics to describe studies that use methods and
insights of several established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinary involves researchers, students, and
teachers in the goals of connecting and integrating several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies - along
with their specific perspectives - in the pursuit of a common task.
For instance, the epidemiology of AIDS or global warming require understanding of diverse disciplines to solve neglected

problems. Interdisciplinary may be applied where the subject is felt to have been neglected or even misrepresented in the
traditional disciplinary structure of research institutions, for example, women's studies or ethnic area studies.
The adjective interdisciplinary is most often used in educational circles when researchers from two or more
disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand,
including the case of the team-taught course where students are required to understand a given subject in terms of multiple
traditional disciplines. For example, the subject of land use may appear differently when examined by different disciplines, for
instance, biology, chemistry, economics, geography, and politics.
Interdisciplinary and collaborative research is needed in most nursing researches. Nurse
researchers conduct studies that deal with human, his behavior, the environment and other factors affecting
health in which, he needs ideas and information by other healthcare disciplines.
1.5 Overview of research methods
Experimental and Non-Experimental Research Methods in Brief
o Experimental research: In experimental research, the aim is to manipulate an independent variable(s)
and then examine the effect that this change has on a dependent variable(s). Since it is possible to
manipulate the independent variable(s), experimental research has the advantage of enabling a researcher to
identify a cause and effect between variables.
For example: The research subject is composed of 100 students completing a comprehensive exam in Nursing
Management where the dependent variable was the exam mark (measured from 0 to 100), and the independent
variables were completion time (measured in hours) and intelligence (measured using IQ score). Here, it would be
possible to use an experimental design and manipulate the completion time of the students. The instructor could divide
the students into two groups, each made up of 50 students. In "group one", the instructor would allow the students to
complete the exam indefinitely. Alternately, "group two" could be asked to complete the exam in a definite time (eg. 1
hour maximum). The instructor could then compare the marks that the students achieved.
o Non-experimental research: In non-experimental research, the researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable(s). This is not to say that it is impossible to do so, but it will either be impractical or
unethical to do so.
For example, a researcher may be interested in the effect of illegal, recreational drug use (the independent variable(s))
on certain types of behavior (the dependent variable(s)). However, whilst possible, it would be unethical to ask
individuals to take illegal drugs in order to study what effect this had on certain behaviors. As such, a researcher could
ask both drug and non-drug users to complete a questionnaire that had been constructed to indicate the extent to which
they exhibited certain behaviors. While it is not possible to identify the cause and effect between the variables, we can
still examine the association or relationship between them.

PART 2: INITIAL STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
2. 1 Purpose and Problem Statements
Introduction: Guidelines in the Formulation of a Research Problem
The initial step in the research process involves the formulation of the problem which includes the
conceptualization of the topic the researcher wants to study. There are two types of research problems, those which relate
to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must
single out the problem he wants to study, he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he
would like to inquire into.
A topic may be conceptualized in various ways, major of which are:
 Natural curiosity- a burning interest in a particular area may lead to formulation of a problem.
 Intellectual curiosity- enables the researcher to conduct study in the most creative and productive ways.
 Literature- the vast availability of literature allows the researcher to seek answers to questions and problems
others have already identified.
 Phenomena- in the nursing profession, topics are vast, such as those experienced in hospitals, communities or
clinics- where the patients are cared for. Specific topics may focus on the kind of patient care being given in
obstetrics, pediatrics, psychiatric, etc.. Other issues may involve health care costs, student training and continuing
education of practitioners.
A chosen research problem should satisfy the following criteria:
1. Feasibility- Means the probability for the study to be accomplished is great. This is determined by the following
factors:
a. Availability of the Study Subjects- The type and number of study subjects must be defined and their consent and
willingness to participate in the study must be secured. In research studies involving the nursing profession, the subjects
decision to participate most especially in health care institutions, depends to a large extent on the explanation the
researcher gives.
Informed Consent- includes the explanation of benefits and risks involved. The subject must be an adult of
sound mind who can give consent freely and voluntarily. Mentally-ill, vulnerable, unconscious and children should
have the consent of their guardian or significant other.
b. Funding- Adequate supplies, tools and facility must be available. Possible expenses would include transportation,
allowances, cost of materials, etc.
c. Cooperation of Others- Cooperation of other personnel within the study setting can be easily gained if they view the
study as important to them or their welfare. Full support of the people involved must be secured.
d. Approval from Higher Authorities- If the study subjects are within the control of an institution (eg. Learning,
Healthcare), permission must be sought from the highest authority within that agency.
e. Adequate Time- Before a study is conducted, the amount of the time needed to finish the study should be estimated,
factors are:
- Type, number and availability of study subjects
- Research design
- Methods of collecting data
- Study completion
- Research report writing
f. Other considerations- possible danger to the lives or physical and mental well-being of the subjects involved in the
study.
2. Significance to One’s profession- It is important to conduct study within one’s specialty- eg. Nurses conduct
researches that deal with healthcare delivery, diseases, drugs, etc. whereas teachers conduct study concerning
student behaviors, learning styles, etc.
3. The concept to be studied must relate to observable events:
Overt behavior- objectively verified (both by the researcher and other persons)
Covert behavior- elicited by reliable instruments developed for that purpose
4. The findings of a good researchable problem may be generalized in other areas- The problem is derived
from a sound conceptual framework or models to confirm, support, modify or reject the existing framework.
5. The purpose of the study is clearly defined- The study may possibly add to the field of nursing knowledge or
new approaches in handling misbehaved elementary students. Whichever the case is, the problem should clearly
state its purpose- to contribute knowledge, develop new procedures or replicate studies to confirm or modify
findings.
6. The researcher must be interested and qualified to do the study- Competence, technical skills in research
methodologies, sound judgment in coping with many decisions that have to be made throughout the research
process and innovativeness are vital attributes of a qualified researcher.

A. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the
problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a
scientific inquiry.
Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, understanding the problem thoroughly and
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
Statement of the Tentative Problem
A research problem is an enigmatic, perplexing or troubling condition, the purpose of which is to solve the problem or
contribute to its solution. It articulates the issues to the addressee and indicates the need for a study. It indicates the specific
research questions the researcher wants to answer or address
Problem statement should be formulated as specifically as possible. It should represent an action or
change. It may be geared toward practical real-life situation or it may represent a theoretical situation that would
expand nursing knowledge.
The problem may be stated in following ways:
1. A question and/or several questions
An Example of a single-question:
Do patients in open wards in general hospitals receive more nursing care than those in private rooms?
An Example of Single question followed by a series of questions:
What are the common methods of contraception practiced by 100 selected mothers in Brgy. X?
1. Is the selection of a particular method influenced by religion, socioeconomic status or
education?
2. What implications does this study have for public health nurses in the area?
2. Sentence/ declarative form
An Example of a single statement:
The study aims to determine the knowledge of cancer, attitudes towards cancer care and
cancer care practices among primary caregivers in Hospital G.
An Example of series of declarative sentences
This study seeks to assess the clinical learning experiences of nursing students of the college of
nursing in two affiliated hospitals. Specifically it aims to determine:
1. The extent to which the hospitals complied with the requirements of the nursing school
program in terms of philosophy and objective.
2. The extent to which clinical instructors have synchronized the learning experiences from
classroom to clinical areas.
3. Declarative sentence followed by a series of questions:
Eg.: The study seeks to determine the professional continuing education of nurses in Hospital Z.
Speciafically, the study seeks to answer the following:
1. What are the professional and personal characteristics of nurses in Hospital Z?
2. What programs could be proposed for adoption by continuing education providers in
Hospital Z?

B. PURPOSE
The problem deals with “what” is to be studied, and the PURPOSE with “WHY” the study is being undertaken.
Therefore, the purpose is the reason or justification why the study is being carried out.
The purpose statement establishes the general direction of the inquiry and captures usually-in one or two
clear sentences- the essence of the study
In the nursing profession, the purpose of a research study may be to contribute to nursing
education or administration.
The objective differs from the purpose as it relates to realistic short-term goals but both evolve from the
statement of the problem.
Stating the Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is usually expressed as a declarative statement. Sometimes the investigator
combines “what” is being done and “why” it is being done. The purpose must be precise, clear, concrete and easy to
communicate.
The statement usually contains an ACTIVE VERB preceded by the preposition “to”. Thus it is common that
purposes begin with “to assess”, “to provide” and “to gain insight.” It is usually easy to identify a purpose statement
because the word “purpose” is clearly stated (other explicitly used words are “aim”, “goal”, “objective” and
“intention”.
Statement of Purpose in a
Quantitative Study
A statement of purpose identifies the key study variables and their
possible interrelationships, as well as the nature of the population of
interest.
Example- “The purpose of this study was to examine the incidence and
prevalence of lipodystrophy-related symptoms in persons with HIV and to
determine the impact of these symptoms on health-related quality of life”
Statement of Purpose in a
Qualitative Study:
In qualitative studies, the statement of purpose indicates the nature of
inquiry, the key concept or phenomenon, and the group, community or
setting under study.
Example- “The purpose of this study was to explore the memories of patients
who had a short term admission to the ICU, with particular focus on dreams,
nightmares and confusion”
Other Examples:
“The purpose of this study is to determine if a specifically planned program of reality orientation would decrease the
degree of confusion among elderly patients experiencing progressive dementia”.
“To assess the post-surgical patient’s knowledge in caring for his colostomy bag”.
“To provide information on how underlicensed nurses are being utilized in private hospitals”.
“The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of health teaching to hospitalized cardiac patients at
Philippine Heart Center.”

2. 2 VARIABLES OF THE STUDY
A. QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
1. Quantitative variable is a variable that can be measured numerically, two types are:
 Discrete- Values are countable; can assume only certain values with no intermediate values (whole numbers); A
quantitative variable with possible values of only specific points on a scale; (Eg.: number of nursing personnel; bed
capacity; frequency of patient visit; heart rate 110 bpm)
 Continuous- Can assume any numerical value over a certain interval; variable where the scale is continuous and not
made up of discrete steps or distinct points on a scale; the values between the data have meaning; the data can be
broken into parts; (Eg: Temperature- 37.8 deg celcius; age- 25.4 years; height 150.7 cm)
2. Qualitative/ categorical variable is a variable that cannot assume a numerical value but can be
classified into two or more nonnumeric categories.
 Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but which do not have an intrinsic order;
considered as the lowest level of measurement used when the data can be recognized but categories cannot be
compared or ranked; for mutual exclusive, but not ordered, categories.
Examples: gender, race, marital status, diagnoses
 Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only two categories or levels.
Examples: Sex-Male and Female ; Survey question like “Are you satisfied with the current policies and hospital procedures”
having only two answers “yes” or “no”).
 Ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal variables only the categories
can also be ordered or ranked. Data may be arranged in some order but differences between data values either
cannot be determined or are meaningless; the order matters but not the difference between values
Example: If a nurse researcher inquires is the nursing staff liked the new policies of the Nursing Service on work schedules,
responses on the list are: "Not very much", "They are OK" or "Yes, a lot" then you have an ordinal variable. Why? Because
you have 3 categories, namely "Not very much", "They are OK" and "Yes, a lot" and you can rank them from the most positive
(Yes, a lot), to the middle response (They are OK), to the least positive (Not very much).
For example, you ask patients to express the amount of pain they are feeling on a scale of 1 to 10. A score of 7
means more pain that a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3. But the difference between the 7 and the 5 may not be
the same as that between 5 and 3. The values simply express an order.
Related concepts: Other Levels of Measurement*
 Interval is like the ordinal, with the additional property that meaningful amount of differences between
data can be determined.
For example, in measuring the patient’s body temperature, The difference between a temperature of 36.5 degrees
and 37.5 degrees is the same difference as between 38 degrees and 90 degrees.
 Ratio is the interval level modified to include the inherent zero starting point. For values at this level,
differences and ratios are meaningful; has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a clear
definition of 0.0. When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable. Variables like height and
weight are ratio variables.
Examples:
- A weight of 4 grams is twice a weight of 2 grams, because weight is a ratio variable.
- A temperature of 100 degrees C is not twice as hot as 50 degrees C, because temperature is not a ratio
variable.
(*There will be a more comprehensive discussion of these concepts in the proceeding sections)

B. VARIABLES IN A HYPOTHESIS
A variable in a hypothesis is a quality, property or characteristic of the person or thing to be studied that can be
quantitatively measured. It is any factor that varies.
Common specific variables used in conducting nursing clinical researches include temperature, vital signs, health
status and anthropometric data.
In a hypothesis, there is an INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (cause) and a DEPENDENT VARIABLE (effect). The independent
variable is the one manipulated by the investigator while the dependent variable is the response.
When a STIMULUS (INDEPENDENT) is applied to an ORGANISM (target population) will produce a RESPONSE
(DEPENDENT).
*Independent and Dependent Variables will be identified in the examples presented under hypothesis section.
2. 3 LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review is an organized written presentation of what has been published on a topic. Broadly, the
review covers previous studies in the identified problem, background, studies, significance of the study and related theories.
Significant terms:
a. Theoretical literature- consists of concept analyses, models, theories and conceptual frameworks that support a
research problem and a purpose.
b. Empirical literature- comprises relevant studies in journals and books including unpublished studies such as
master’s theses (M.A. course requirement) and dissertations (extensive and original research project as a final
requirement for doctoral degree).
c. Abstract- summary of the study usually found at the beginning of the research study, it includes:
1. The introduction and objective
2. The research problem
3. The rationale for the study and the hypothesis
The methodology used is also included in the abstract and states the number and characteristics of the
participants; the setting of the study (location); the research design and how the study was conducted. The abstract shows
the relevance of the study to the one currently undertaken by the researcher in terms of methodology, as matched to the
research question, the selection of the participants and the outcomes.
What questions must be addressed?
1. What is known about the topic?
2. What research evidence is lacking, inconclusive or too limited?
3. What directions for the study are indicated by the works of other researchers?
4. What are the existing theories in the field of study?
5. What views need further testing?
6. What contribution can the present paper be expected to make?
7. What appropriate methods/ designs of previous studies seem unsatisfactory?

Process of Literature Review
1. Initial review- is done to have an overview of the problem area and eventually develop a frame of reference
(ideas, understandings, and background within which research will be done). A thorough review covers studies that
are published for the last five years. There should be full awareness of the basic facts and issues on which there is
agreement or disagreement, as well as on the theories that have attempted to explain behavior and interactions in
the problem area.
2. Second review- should focus on tested research approaches and methods, data collection instruments and
techniques of data analysis.
Purposes:
a. To define research questions, methods and tools that may prove useful in problem identification, research design and
instrument development.
b. To reveal difficulties experienced by previous researchers.
c. To provide clear information on the tasks carried out by previous researchers.
d. To locate findings that may be included in a similar study to confirm or refute earlier findings.
e. To provide comparative data in the analysis and interpretation of one’s own.
f. To identify studies that may be replicated or re-tested .
g. To compare one’s findings with other theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
Sources of Literature Review:
a. Primary source- written by a person who originated and is responsible for generating the ideas published (eg: the
person who conducted a research authors an article in a publication).
b. Secondary source- summarizes or quotes content from primary sources (eg: authors paraphrase the works of
researchers and theorists)
For Nurse Researchers, there are three especially useful electronic databases:
1. CUMMULATIVE INDEX TO NURSING AND ALLIED HEALTH LITERATURE (CINAHL)
2. MEDICAL LITERATURE ON LINE (MedLINE)
3. INSTITUTE FOR SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION (ISI) Web of Knowledge
Other helpful resources are: Journal of Advanced Nursing Practice; American Journal of Nursing; Nursing Research; American Journal of
Nursing
2. 4 Framework and Paradigm of the Study
Defining Theories, Models and Framework
Many terms have been used in connection with conceptual context for research, including theories, models, frameworks,
schemes and maps. There is some overlap in how these terms are used, partly because they are interrelated.
1. Theory (the terms is used in many ways). Theory in its broadest sense simply denotes an abstraction. Further, theory
refers to an abstract generalization that offers a systematic generalization about how phenomena are interrelated. For
example, nursing instructors and students frequently use the terms to refer to the content covered in subject areas, as
opposed to the actual practice of performing nursing activities.
Two Types of theories are:
 Traditional Theory- Scientific theories that involve a series of propositions regarding interrelationships among concepts;
two subtypes are:
Grand theories/ macrotheories: account for large segment of human experience (eg.: Nursing Process)
Middle-range theories: more restricted in scope; focusing narrow range of experience (eg.: Stress, self-care, health-promotion)

 Descriptive Theory- Less restrictive definition in which a theory can account for a single phenomenon and plays
an important role in qualitative researches; describe or classify characteristics of groups, specimen, situations or
events by describing commonalities found in discrete observations.
2. Model represents some aspects of reality, concrete or abstract, by means of a likeness that may be structural, pictorial,
diagrammatic or mathematical. It does not focus on phenomena but rather on their structure or function. It is a symbolic
representation of an idea, it may be complete but does not show how and why the parts are interrelated.
 Conceptual Models (syn.: Conceptual Frameworks, Conceptual Schemes)
Represent a less formal attempt at organizing phenomena than theories, like theories conceptual models deal with
abstractions (concepts) that are assembled by virtue of their relevance to a common theme. These models provide a
perspective interrelated phenomena, but are more loosely structured than theories
Much of the conceptual work that has been done in connection with nursing practice falls into the category of
CONCEPTUAL MODELS. These models represent conceptualizations of the nursing process and the nature of nurse-client
relationships.
 Conceptual Paradigm/ Schematic Models are often used in connection with symbolic representations of a
conceptualization. These are visual representation of some aspect of reality. These models use concept as
building blocks, but with minimal use of words. A visual symbolic representation of a theory or conceptual framework
often helps to express abstract ideas in concise and readily understandable form.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, an example of schematic model
3. Framework
Not every study is based on a formal theory or conceptual model, but every study has a framework- a theoretical rationale. In
study based on a theory, the framework is referred to as theoretical framework; whereas in study that has its roots in a
specified conceptual model, the framework is called conceptual framework.
________________________________________
The Five-step Process for Developing Conceptual (theoretical) Definitions:
a. Develop preliminary definition
b. Review relevant literature
c. Develop or identify exemplars (good example/ model)
d. Map the concept’s meaning
e. State the developed conceptual definitions
Criteria for Judging a Theory:
It is suggested that a theory be evaluated before it is used as basis for a research project. The theory must be evaluated based on the
following questions:
1. What is the significance of a theory? Does it address a problem of a particular interest to my profession and the society?
2. Does the theory offer the possibility of explaining or systematically describing some phenomena?
3. Is the theory testable? Can the concepts be observed and measured
Internal and External Criticism in Evaluating a Theory (Stevens)
Internal Criticism
a. Clarity- theory is presented in such a way that concepts and propositions and their relationships are easily understood.
b. Consistency- theory is must be consistent with the meaning of terms, interpretations, principles and methods of reasoning.
c. Logical development- the reasoning process must lead logically to its conclusion.
d. Level of theory development- the theory is understood within the context of existing knowledge about the subject.
External Criticism
If the criticism is used in nursing research, the theory is evaluated based on how it relates to the world of people, health
environment and nursing.

In general, the following are criteria in making an external criticism of a theory:
a. Adequacy- adequacy of principles, interpretations and methods
b. Utility- the theory is must be useful in education, research or practice, it must be operational and testable
c. Significance- the theory must address issues that are basic and relevant to one’s profession and aim towards increasing
knowledge
d. Discrimination- the theory must clearly relate to one’s profession (Eg.: In nursing research, the theory must clearly discriminate
between what nursing is and must be what it is not)
e. Scope- the scope indicates whether the theory has a narrow or broad focus
f. Complexity and Parsimony:
 Complexity in a theory examines the relationships among many variables.
 Parsimony is the decision criterion in which, when two or more theoretically sound solutions exist, the least complex solution with
the fewest assumptions should be selected.
2. 5 Research Questions and Hypotheses
A. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research questions are, in some cases, direct rewordings of statements of purpose, phrased interogatively rather
than declaratively. The Question form has the advantage of simplicity and directness and it invites and answer and help to
focus attention on the kind of data that would have to be collected to provide that answer. Some research reports thus omit a
statement of purpose and state only research questions. Other researchers use a set of research questions to clarify or lend
greater specifity to a global purpose statement.
Research questions are phrased interogatively rather than declaratively:
Declarative The purpose of this study is to assess the relationship bewteen the dependency level of renal transplant
recipients and their rate of recovery.
Interrogative What is the relationship between the dependency level of renal transplant recipients and their
rate of recovery?
B. Defining Research Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a sharp guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted; It is a statement between the
phenomenon and the variables being studied. Broadly:
a. A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further
investigation.
b. A proposition made as a basis for reasoning, without any assumption of its truth.
A hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis thus translates a quantitative
research question into a precise prediction of expected outcomes; whereas in qualitative studies, researchers do not begin with a
hypothesis. In part because there is too little known about the topic to justify a hypothesis, and in part, in qualitative studies, researchers
want the inquiry to be guided by participants’ viewpoint rather than their own.
(Based on the above explanation, the following discussion focuses on hypothesis in a quantitative research
Its purposes are:
 To explain observed facts or conditions and to guide further investigation.
 To translate problem statements into predictions of expected outcomes and is a technique in answering a problem.
Hypothesis is tested, and if found to be true, accepted. If not, rejected.
It is not proved, it is only tested. Once proved, it becomes a theory.

Attributes of a good hypothesis:
1. It is strong enough to compel an inquiry and serve as its focus.
2. When substantiated through research, it moves to the domain of theory.
3. It can be used to guide phenomena, guide actions and predict outcomes.
4. It adequately explains observed facts.
5. It offers the simplest explanation under the circumstances.
6. It offers an explanation that is complex as necessary under the circumstances.
7. It can be brought into an agreement or disagreement with observations.
8. Is easily understood, specific, conceptually clear and tangibly measured.
9. It should be related to a body of theories so that the findings will be relevant and can provide valuable information.
Derivation of Hypotheses:
Inductive and Deductive
Inductive hypothesis is a generalization inferred from observed relationships. Researchers observe certain patterns, trends or
association among phenomena and then use the observations as a basis for predictions; begin with specific observations and move
toward generalizations.
Example of the use of inductive hypothesis:
A nurse might notice that presurgical patients who ask a lot of questions relating to pain or who express many pain-related
apprehensions have a more difficult time. The nurse could then formulate a testable hypothesis such as:
“Patients who are stressed by fear of pain will have more difficulty in deep breathing and coughing after
their surgery than patients who are not stressed”
Deductive hypothesis has starting point theories that are applied to particular situations. Since theories of how phenomena
behave and interrelate cannot be tested directly, a researcher can develop hypotheses based on general theoretical principles. The following
reasoning illustrate the process:
1. All human beings have red and white blood cells
2. Kris is a human being
3. Therefore, kris has red and white blood cells
Example of the use of deductive hypothesis:
In a qualitative study of PTSD due to childbirth, one of the researcher’s finding was that mothers suffering from PTSD were bombarded
with terrifying flashbacks in which they relived their traumatic births. A hypothesis that can be formulated from this qualitative finding can
be:
“ Women who experience PTSD due to birth trauma experience more flashbacks of their labor and delivery
than women who do not experience a traumatic birth”
Sources of hypotheses:
a. Observation of phenomenon within the environment
(In nursing, sources of hypothesis can be hospital settings, drugs, healthcare delivery system, healthcare cost, nursing staff, etc.)
b. Experiences
c. Other hypothesis that have been tested
Types of hypothesis:
Type Description Example (underlined- IV/ in bold- DV)
Associative Identifies the variables
that occur or exist
together in practice.
Performance in the college of nursing is related to success in the NLE.
Analysis: This merely states that there is a relationship between the two variables
but it does not specify what it is (it does not specify passing or failing).
Hence, this is a non-directional hypothesis.
Causal Specifies the cause and
effect between two or
more variables. It is
directional in nature
People who smoke are more likely to have lung cancer than people who do not
smoke.
Analysis: While not all smokers get lung cancer, the hypothesis predicts the
relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
Hence, this is a directional statement
Both associative and causal hypotheses predict relationships between the variables being studied. However, while the associative
hypothesis merely states there is a relationship (non-directional), the causal hypothesis specifies the prediction that the IV produces effects
on the DV (directional).

Simple Predicts the relationship
between one IV and one
DV.
(It may be associative
or causal)
Pre-operative instructions minimize the pre-operative anxieties of
patients facing major surgery.
(directional)
Pre-operative instruction is related to operative anxieties of patients
scheduled for major surgery.
(non-directional)
Complex Predicts the relationship
between two or more
variables IVs and DVs.
Heredity, home environment and quality of instruction are related to
intelligence, motivation and performance in school.
Null
Is an assumption that
there is NO
DIFFERENCE between
the studied variables.
It is used for statistical
testing outcomes.
(It can be simple or
complex/ associative or
causal.
There is no relationship between smoking and lung cancer.
(Causal null hypothesis - the IV has no effect on the DV)
No significant difference in the test measure will be found among students having
a hospital clinical experience and those having a free day prior to test
administration.
(The researcher hopes to reject the statement of no difference)
Testing the hypothesis
The ultimate value of hypothesis is derived from whether or not it can be tested in real-life situation.
A testable hypothesis contains variables that can be measured or manipulated in practice.
a. Associative- tested and evaluated using statistical analysis
b. Correlational- tested using analysis of ordinal level data, interval and ratio
c. Null- tested to determine whether the IV has a significant effect on the DV. Research findings do not prove the
hypothesis to be true or not- instead, the results of the research hypothesis are described as being supported or not
supported. Findings can be:
 Accepted is results indicate NO relationship exists
 Rejected if there is difference/ relationship that exists

PART 3: RESEARCH DESIGN
Defining Research Design
The research design is a blueprint that delineates the factors that would interfere with a study’s design
outcome. It is a detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design typically include how data will be
collected, what instruments will be employed, how the instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing data
collected. The choice of the research design depends upon the problem, the purpose of the study, the researcher’s expertise
and the desire to generalize the findings.
In broadest sense, the type of design directs the selection of a population sampling procedure, methods of
assessment and a plan for data collection and analysis (Burns and Grave, 2009)
______________________________________________
A. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is a formal, objective and systematic process in which the numerical data are used to obtain
information. It is a scientific method of research which is based on logical empiricism in which the researcher has no active
interaction with the subjects to prevent bias. It is used to describe variables, examine relationships among variables, and
determine the cause and effect interactions between variables.
Quantitative research the most predominantly used method of scientific investigation in nursing.
Quantitative research requires the use of the following that generate NUMERICAL DATA:
a. Structured interviews, questionnaires or observations
b. Scales
c. Physiological instruments (eg: BP Apparatus)
Statistical analyses are conducted to reduce and organize data, determine significant relationships and identify differences among
groups. This process ensures that research findings may be applied not only to the study’s sample but to a larger population or from the
sample situation to a larger situation.
Types of Quantitative Research:
Descriptive
(Non-
experimental)
Is a very popular research approach. It provides an accurate portrayal or account of characteristic of
particular individuals, situations or groups.
It offers researchers a way to discover new meaning, describe what exists, describe the frequency of a
phenomenon or categorize information.
1. SURVEYS
Through a survey, data are gathered from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time.
Subtypes of surveys and purposes
a. Community Survey- to determine the trends and possibly carry out improvements
b. Normative Survey- conducted to determine the normal or typical condition of situations and people
c. Social Survey- aim to study and diagnose current problem, situation or population within a definite
place so as to formulate a social reform or constructive program

d. School Survey- instruments for evaluating and planning school progress; seeks to formalize
administrative planning for determining the next steps in school system and for evaluating efficiency
of the system and its personnel;
3 three types of school survey are:
Outside expert surveys- conducted exclusively by the research staff of a university/ institution in a
particular school
Self-surveys- conducted by members of a local school within the institution
Combined surveys- joint efforts of the local school and an outside consultant
3 kinds of topics in school survey can be:
Comprehensive- nature of pupils and their achievements, the curriculum, methods and instructional
aides
Educational- covers school activities related to the instructional program, policies and procedures, the
setting and the learning conditions
Building/ Structure- includes school plans and items such as location, lighting, ventilation, canteen,
library, play area, etc.
___________________________________________
2. Analytical Studies
a. Job and Activity Analysis- This method describes the activities of persons who are observed, classified and
analyzed.
b. Document Analysis- This is a critical analysis of the content of written and printed materials as sources of
data.
(Eg.: The use of concurrent chart audit to determine if nurses comply with the set standards of quality nursing
care)
c. Causal Comparative Studies- This is to discover the factors that contribute to some observable facts. The
method begins with the presence of several factors affecting certain observations from which the researcher
selects some for analysis.
Correlational
Research
Methods
(Non-
experimental)
Correlational research examines relationship between two or more variables and determines
the type (POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE) or degree (STRENGTH) of relationship:
a. Ranges from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to;
b. +1 (perfect positive correlation)
c. 0 (indicates NO relationship)
Positive relationship indicates that the variables either increase or decrease together
Negative/ inverse indicates that the variables vary in opposite directions
Eg.: There is a correlation between the leadership behavior of nurse managers and the performance of nursing
staff
Experimental
Design
In an experimental design, the researcher structures the situation so there will be a sound
basis for determining the effect of the independent variable and how much is due to change.
In an experimental research, the study subjects belong to either:
 CONTROL group- subjects or group of elements NOT subjected or exposed to the experimental
treatment (point of reference).
 EXPERIMENTAL group- is the subject exposed to the experiment/ intervention.
It has FOUR distinguished strategies:
a. Manipulation of the independent variables.
b. Random selection of sample members of the control or experimental groups.
c. Use of an experimental group that is exposed to the independent variable or experimental factor
and another group that is not exposed to the independent variable or experimental factor.
d. Measurement of the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable before and
after the manipulation of the independent variable.
Common types of Experimental Research:
1. AFTER-ONLY EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
In this technique, the investigator assigns the subjects to an experimental group and a control group but
collects the data only at the end of the treatment or exposure to the independent variable.
2. BEFORE AND AFTER EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE
a. Single Group Design/ One-group
Uses only one group of subjects, involving the following steps:
i. pre-testing of the DV
ii. exposure of the subjects to the experimental variable
iii. post-testing of the subjects; and
iv. comparison of the results of the two tests to determine the effect of the IV

b. Two-group Before and After Technique
This second type of group experimentation involves two or more groups that are AS NEARLY EQUIVALENT
AS POSSIBLE. It makes use of two groups however, the EXPERIMENTAL GROUP is exposed to the
experimental factor and the CONTROL GROUP to the ordinary treatment.
This parallel-equated technique involves the following steps:
i. matching the subjects on the basis of a matching variables
ii. exposing the experimental group to the experimental factor and the control group to the ordinary
treatment
iii. testing both groups on the dependent variable, and;
iv. comparing the results to determine the effect of the experimental factor
*Diagrammatic examples are provided on the presentation for further understanding.
Quasi-
experimental
Research
(Experimental)
The purposes are:
a. identify causal relationships
b. to determine the significance of causal relationship
c. clarify why certain events happen
(or a combination of above mentioned)
In nursing research, these studies test the effectiveness of nursing interventions that can be
implemented to control patient and family outcomes in nursing practice.
Distinguished feature:
There is NO CONTROL GROUP and the signature is the absence of randomization. Researchers are
commonly UNABLE to manipulate or control certain variables when studying human behavior or in nursing
research, clinical areas. Subjects are NOT randomly selected and are selected based on convenience.
So that, it has lower level of control in at least one of these areas:
- manipulation of the treatment or independent variable
- manipulation of setting
- selection of the subjects
Concepts Relevant to Quantitative Research:
1. Pure or basic research- The search for new knowledge includes establishment of fundamental
theories or relationships among facts not intended for immediate use in real-life situations. It usually
precedes or is the basis for applied research.
Eg.: Studies on newly-proposed interventions conducted on animals in laboratories (Cancer treatment tested in guinea pigs).
2. Applied Research- In nursing research, applied or practical research is common as it scientifically
investigates to generate knowledge that will directly influence or improve a clinical situation, make a decision, develop
or evaluate procedure, program or product.
Eg.: A nurse researcher studies the implementation of quality assurance programs in the nursing services of hospitals X and Y.
______________________________________________
B. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a systematic, interactive and subjective approach used to describe life experiences and
give them meaning. It is an interpretative methodological approach to produce more of a subjective science than
quantitative research.
It evolves on behavioral and social sciences as a method of understanding the unique, dynamic and holistic nature of
human beings. Its philosophical base is interpretative, humanistic and naturalistic.

It believes that truth is both complex and dynamic and can be found only by studying persons as they interact with and within
the sociohistorical settings (Marshall & Rossman, 2006; Munhall, 2001).
In nursing research, it is commonly conducted to describe and promote understanding of human
experiences such as pain, caring and comfort.
The focus is broad and the researcher is an active participant in the study. It intends to give meaning to the whole
and the researcher’s values and perceptions influence the findings. Distinguished characteristics are as follows:
a. Uses unstructured observations and interviews to gather data.
b. There is a shared interpretation of the researcher and the subject and no attempts to control the interaction.
c. Data are collected and are analyzed in terms of individual responses, descriptive summaries or both.
d. The findings are unique to the study and are not intended to be generalized to apply to a larger population.
Types of Qualitative Research
Phenomenological
Research
Is a humanistic study of a study phenomenon that is conducted in a variety of ways
according to the philosophy of the researcher. The purpose is to explore an experience
as it is lived by the study participants and interpreted by the researcher. During the
study, the researcher’s experiences, reflections and interpretations influence the data collected
from the study participants. Thus, the participants’ lived experiences are expressed through the
researcher’s interpretation.
In nursing research, this method is effective in discovering the meaning of a complex
experience as it is lived by person, such as dealing with chronic illness and pain.
Grounded Theory
Research
An inductive research method and is useful in discovering what problems exist in a
social setting and the process people use to handle them. It emphasizes observation and
the development of practice-based intuition to formulate, test and re-develop prepositions until
theory evolves. The theory developed is “grounded” or has “roots” in the data from which it was
derived.
Ethnographic
Research
“portrait of a
people”
Provides mechanism for studying one’s own culture and that of others. It has been
regarded as part of various disciplines in social psychology, sociology, education, political science
and nursing.
Ethnography describes and analyzes aspects of the way of life of a particular culture, subculture or
subculture group. It enables the researcher to acquire new perspectives beyond his own
ethnocentric perspective.
In nursing, one of the major contributions of ethnography may be to promote culturally-
specific care.
Historical
Research
Is used if the researcher believes that the answer to his research lies in the past. It is
believed that the greatest value of historical knowledge is greater self-understanding. This is
valuable in community planning that leaders will be able to consider the relationships exist within a
community- from its simple communal living to today’s complex living situations.
Historical nursing research increases nurses’ understanding of their profession.
Sources of data:
 Primary- first-hand information serves as a clear evidence about the past (remains, relics,
oral/written testimonies)
 Secondary- second/third-hand accounts (history books, encyclopedias)
Tools for Evaluation:
 External criticism- authenticity/ genuineness of evidence/ originality (physical)
 Internal criticism- credibility, validity and the trustworthiness of statements and facts in relation
to the truth
Case Analysis Involves an in-depth investigation of a single unit of study, such as person, family, group,
community or institution or a small number of subjects who are examined intensively.
The case itself is central, it focuses on study determining the dynamics of why an individual thinks,
behaves or develops in a particular manner. This requires detailed study overtime.

Determining the Research Setting
(Essential to choosing the appropriate research design)
a. Natural settings- uncontrolled, real-life environments (schools, homes, communities); descriptive and
correlational studies are conducted in this settings.
(Eg.: A Study on the Practices on Health and Nutrition of Pregnant Mothers in Brgy. Y)
b. Partially-controlled settings- the environment is modified in some way by the researcher; usually used
in quasi-experimental studies.
(Eg.: Fears and Anxieties of Patients and Their Relatives Towards Major Surgery at Hospital X)
c. Highly-controlled setting- done in laboratories to test new innovations (drugs, chemicals, treatments)
(Eg.: Animal tests to evaluate the effectiveness of a new method in attacking cancer cells done in a
laboratory using mice)
3.1 Ethical Design of Research
Ethics is the science that deals with the nature of actions of intelligent beings in relation to their moral
qualities. As nurse, I would like to focus on ethical research concepts concerning my profession. In this regard, I will
thoroughly discuss Ethical Issues in Nursing Research.
Ethical Issues in Nursing Research
Ethics and Research:
Nursing research focuses on people- their health attitudes, experiences, values, coping behavior, support
systems, community networks and environmental stress. Thus, human subjects are almost always involved in nursing
research. Awareness of the rights of human subject is a major part of the nurses’ responsibility when it comes to research
studies or assisting one who is conducting research or evaluating a research article.
It is important that:
a. The nurse researcher’s desire for scientific knowledge is compatible with dignity and right of individual and social groups.
b. When performing moral judgment, the nurse researcher decides what is right or good and what he must do.
c. The nurses’ primary responsibility is to preserve life at all cost (PNA,Code of Ethics, 1993), therefore nurses involved in
research should bear in mind the importance of the subjects’ safety and welfare.
Characteristics of Ethical Research:
a. Scientific objectivity- being aware of personal values and biases without preconceived outcomes without engaging in any
acts of bad faith or misconduct/fraud in doing the research.
b. Cooperation with authorized review boards- means that the proposal has been reviewed and approved by the
appropriate review committee in the agency or institution so that the subjects’ rights may be protected (the approval is given
in writing).
c. Integrity of the nature of the study- The subjects’ right to information is upheld (eg.: possible risks and discomforts).
d. Equitableness- Acknowledging the works of others.
e. Nobility- Advocating the rights of human subjects, the researcher protect the subject from any harm , deceit, coercion or
invasion of their right to privacy.
f. Truthfulness- Reflected in in the study’s purpose, procedures, methods and findings.
g. Impeccability- Observance of the researcher’s role to anonymity and confidentiality.
h. Honesty- Disclosure about the study’s funding and sponsorship.
i. Illumination- The research should yield a fruitful result (did the study add new knowledge? solve a problem? or improve
skills?)
j. Courage- needed to clarify publicly any distortions that others may make of the research findings.
Basic Human Rights of Research Subjects: (Burns and Grove, 2009)
1. Right to self-determination
(Informed Consent is of prime importance, the four elements are-
1.disclosure of essential information; 2.comprehension; 3. Competency; 4. Volunteerism
Important- consent forms are stored with the master list of the subjects’ names and code numbers (it must be locked in
a safe place).

2. Right to fair treatment
Study subjects should be treated fairly and the agreement should be respected both by the researcher and the subject
(principle of justice). All subjects should receive benefits as promised and should be represented equally in the study.
3. Right to privacy
It includes the privacy of one’s thoughts, opinions, physical presence and the privacy of one’s records.
Important: Collection of data from observation without the subjects’ consent or knowledge is a clear violation of the
right to privacy.
4. Right to confidentiality and anonymity of data
Data entrusted by the research subjects must be protected and should be available ONLY to the research staff and
reported anonymously for that research purpose only.
Important: After the report is written, all data by which individuals can be identified should be destroyed (burned,
shredded)
5. Right to be protected from discomfort and harm
In the risk-benefit ratio, the risk should be outweighed by the benefits.
The subjects must be well informed about the possible harm that be encountered during the process of research
(physical, emotional, legal, financial, social harm). The subject has the right to refuse from participation if he experiences
undue anxiety related to research activities.
The 5th
principle of Nuremberg’s Code* states that “No experiment should be conducted where there is a prior reason to believe that
death or injury will occur, except, perhaps, in those experiments where the experimental physicians (or other health professionals) also serve
as subjects.
* be thoroughly discussed on presentation
3.2 Sampling
Delineation of the Population/s to be Studied
(SAMPLING)
The researcher proceeds to define the population to be studied from which the sample subjects are selected. The sample is
selected on the basis of how much it reflects the characteristics of the population to be studied.
 Population refers to the largest body of individuals, in the case being researched on, that conform to a specific set
of particulars or eligibility criteria; It is the entire number or totality of the groups of people, objects, events or any
form of things being studied.
 Sampling is a process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population.
 Sampling/ Eligibility Criteria include:
- The list of individuals who are focused on the research
- The list of characteristics essential to be a member of the target population
Factors that Determine Sample Size
1. Accessibility of sample participants (a sample is taken when it is not feasible to study the whole population)
2. Cost (only a limited number may be studied if no funds are available)
3. Amount of time available (if the time is limited, only a small sample size may be gathered)
A. Probability Sampling/ Sampling Methods- Developed to ensure some degree of precision to
estimations of the population parameters. Technically, it refers to the fact every member or element of the
population has a higher than zero probability of being selected for sample.
1. Simple Random Selection is done by chance (eg. Lottery draws)
2. Stratified Random Population is subdivided into areas/ section the random samples are taken from each
area/ section
(Eg.: dividing the students by year level and obtain random samples from each level)

3. Systematic Done by taking every nth person in the population
4. Cluster A small sample size is taken from various sections of the total population
(Eg.: obtaining small sample size from each hospital in Metro Manila to study attitudes of
hospital employees towards work)
B. Non-Probability/ Non-Random Sampling- This kind of sampling is purposely chosen for an in-
depth understanding of a particular experience, situation, cultural element or misconduct.
1. Convenience/
Accidental
Data are collected from anyone most conveniently available; considered to be the
weakest from of sampling
2. Snowball/ Network Subjects suggest or refer other subjects who meet the criteria/ eligibility of the
researcher
3. Judgmental/
Purposive
The researcher selects and studies a specific number of a special group that
represents the target population with regard to certain characteristics such as age,
sex or economic status. (Eg.: the researcher taps the deans of nursing colleges for
nursing education studies)
4. Cross-cultural The study is conducted in variety of cultural settings (eg.: Tagalogs, Visayans, etc.)
5. Longitudinal Given group of subjects is studied for an extended period of time , which is either:
Retrospective- studies from the past to the present
Prospective- studies from the present to the future
(Eg.: Study of a mastectomy patient from time of operation up to five years after
discharge)
6. Cross-sectional Subjects are observed at a given period
(Eg.: Professional preferences of Senior High School Students Upon Graduation)
7. Quota sampling The researcher identifies the population to be studied and determines the proportion
needed in the population.
(Eg.: selecting 80% of the class to participate in the study)
3.3 Designing the Research Instrument
Defining Research Instrument
Once the specific method and technique are selected, the researcher then develops the tool or instrument to gather data. An
instrument in a research study is a device used to measure the concept of interest in a research project. A research
instrument is a survey, questionnaire, test, scale, rating, or tool designed to measure the variable(s), characteristic(s), or
information of interest, often a behavioral or psychological characteristic. Research instrument is a major tool in a
research study.
"Careful planning for data collection can help with setting realistic goals. Data collection instrumentation, such as
surveys, physiologic measures (blood pressure or temperature), or interview guides, must be identified and described. Using
previously validated collection instruments can save time and increase the study's credibility. Once the data collection
procedure has been determined, a time line for completion should be established." (Pierce, 2009)
Instruments can be:
 Observation scales
 Questionnaires
 Interview schedules

An instrument must have the following qualities:
a. Reliability- refers to the accuracy or precision of the tool; when administered twice, the
instrument should provide identical data.
b. Validity- Refers to the relevance of the measurement to the study being done.
c. Sensitivity- Means that the fine lines of differences among the study subjects can be
determined from the measurements (eg.: ratings and thermometers)
d. Meaningfulness- Means that the measurement has a practical application.
e. Appropriateness- applicability to the subjects being studied
f. Objectivity- the tool is free from bias
g. Ethical- the tools selected does not violate the right of the human subject (discussed).
Where to Locate Instruments?
Realize that searching for an instrument may take a lot of time. They may be published in a book or article on a particular subject.
They may be published and described in a dissertation. They may be posted on the Internet and freely available. A specific instrument may
be found in multiple publications and has been used for a long time. Or it may be new and only described in a few places. It may only be
available by contacting the person who developed it, who may or may not respond to your inquiry in a timely manner.
There are a variety of sources that may be used to search for research instruments. They include books, databases, Internet search engines,
Web sites, journal articles, and dissertations.
Permission to Use Instruments:
If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument,
but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments are copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright
holder to obtain permission in writing (print or email). Written permission is a record that you obtained permission.
It is a good idea to have them state in writing that they are indeed the copyright holder and that they grant you permission to use the
instrument. If you wish to publish the actual instrument in your paper, get permission for that, too. You may write about the instrument
without obtaining permission. If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they are
violating copyright and could be legally liable
3. 4 Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument
Defining Validity and Reliability
Validity and Reliability are two statistical properties used to evaluate the quality of research instruments (Anastasi, 1986).
Hence, it is important that an instrument possess both:
1. Validity
The validity of the instrument used and validity of the research design as a whole are important criteria in evaluating the worth of the results
conducted.
Internal validity refers to the likehood that experimental manipulation indeed was responsible for the differences observed, whereas;
External validity refers to the extent to which the results of the study can be generalized to the larger population (Polit & Hungler, 1999)
Four types of validity are used to judge the accuracy of an instrument:
a. Content validity
- High level of validity indicates that test items accurately reflect the trait being measured.
Eg.: a questionnaire to assess anxiety would be high in content validity if it includes questions about known sysmptoms of which
such as muscle tension and a rapid pulse rate.
b. Predictive validity
- An assessment measure with high predictive validity is capable of making accurate predictions of future behavior even in a
different but related situation.
c. Concurrent validity
- If a test possess high degree of concurrent validity, then it can be expected to give results very similar to other measures of
same characteristic.
d. Construct validity
- The extent to which a theoretical construct such as personality trait can be empirically defined.

2. Reliability
Reliability of an instrument reflects its stability and consistency within a given context, consistency over time and giving identical results on
repeated tests. For example, a scale developed to measure intelligence might not be reliable for measurement of personality.
Three qualities are evaluated to test the reliability of an instrument:
a. Stability (Test-retest reliability)
- An aspect of reliability that is concerned with the extent to which an instrument yields the same results on repeated administration
(evaluated by test-retest reliability).
- refers to degree to which research participants response to change overtime.
- In this method, an instrument is given to the same individuals on two occasions within relatively short duration of time; A
correlation coefficient is calculated to determine how closely the participants’ responses on the second occasion matched their
responses on the first occasion.
b. Internal consistency (half-split reliability)
Refers to the extent to which all the instrument items are measuring the same attribute.
c. Notion of equivalence (interrater reliability)
- Applicable when different observers are using the same instrument to collect data at the same time.
- Coefficient can be calculated to see correlation of values.

PART 4: MEASUREMENT AND DATA COLLECTION
4.1 Measurement concepts and strategies
Measurement in Quantitative Studies
Measurement studies derive data through the measurement of variables. It involves the assignment of numbers to represent
the amount of an attribute present in an object or person, using a specified set of rules (quantitation).
Measurement involves assigning numbers to objects according to rules (eg.: measuring temperature, weight, blood pressure
and other physical attributes).
Rules for measuring many variables for nursing research studies however have to be invented. Whether the data are
collected by observation, self-report, or some other method, researchers must specify criteria for assigning the numeric values
to the characteristic of interest.
Example:
The nurse is studying attitudes towards distribution of condoms in school clinics and asked parents to express their extent of agreement
with the following statement.
“Teenagers should have access to contraceptives in school clinics.”
__ strongly disagree / __disagree / __ slightly disagree / __ neither agree nor disagree
__slightly agree / __ agree / __ strongly agree
Responses to this question can be quantified by developing a system for assigning numbers to them. Note that any rule
would satisfy the measurement- the most practical way is to assign 1 to “strongly disagree” and 7 to “strongly
agree”.
 Obtained scores from an instrument consist of a true score component (the value that would be obtained for a
hypothetical perfect measure of the attribute, or error of measurement that represent measurement inaccuracies.
 Reliability, one of two primary criteria for assessing a quantitative measurement, is the degree of consistency or
accuracy with which an instrument measures an attribute. The higher the reliability of an instrument, the lower the
amount of error in obtained scores.
Assessment methods are:
Reliability Coefficient based on the computation of relation coefficient that indicates the magnitude and direction of
a relationship between two variables.
Relation coefficient can range from -1.00, a perfect negative relationship through zero to +1.00, a perfect positive
relationship. Higher values reflect greater reliability.
 Methods
The choice of instruments to be used in collecting data depends on:
- The variables being studied
- The sampling units to be included
- The amount of time available to complete the study
- The amount of resources available
The instrument for data collection should be tested first before it is applied to subjects in actual study. The tests can be made
with subjects, representatives or their actual counterparts. This allows sufficient time for analyzing results so that necessary
changes can be made.
 Pre-test
A pre-test is used to validate the measures of the variables being studied by correlating them with outside criteria, and to
provide a “dry-run” of the actual administration of data collecting.

Strategies
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES APPROACH/CRITERIA
1. QUESTIONNAIRE
It is the most common
type instrument; written
form and distributed to
the study subjects to
secure responses:
Two Types:
a. OPEN-ENDED/
FREE RESPONSE
- why/ what/ how
- allows complete freedom in
answering
- difficult in terms of time and
expense for tabulating and
summarizing the results.
b. CLOSE-ENDED/
STRUCTURED FORM
- Responses are prepared;
the respondent merely
checks, underlines or ranks
the responses as directed.
- time saving
- responses are limited to the
ones provided
- simple method
- less time is
required
- the researcher
is able to gather
data from a
widely scattered
sample
- the researcher
does not have
to see the
respondents
personally
- suitable for
beginners
questionnaires
may lack
depth; probing
is not possible
- respondent
may omit/
disregard or
forced to select
some
responses
- costly in
terms of
printing
- respondents/
sample is
limited to
those who are
literate
In constructing the questionnaire, the researcher
should determine the content or information
critical to the research problem- making it too
lengthy may lose the subject’s interest leaving many
item unanswered, other considerations include
a. The questionnaire should not have too many items
or take too much time for the respondent to answer.
b. It should be interesting to the subject.
c. It must not be too suggestive or stimulating.
d. The questions are asked in such a way that the
respondent is not embarrassed.
e. Questions should elicit an in- depth but well-defined
responses.
Order of Questions
1. Each item should relate to the subject under study.
2. Items should be organized- progression from one
type to another, from the simple to the complex, more
difficult and thought-provoking.
3. General questions should lead to specific ones.
2. INTERVIEW
- is the second most
common method for
data collection:
a. Interview
schedule- (structured)
read to the respondent
b. Interview guide-
unstructured; the
interviewer is allowed
to pursue relevant
ideas in depth; mp3
recording and other
modern modes of
recording can be used.
- complete
answers are
possible
-
misunderstand
ing can be
minimized
when
questions are
explained by
the researcher
- some topics
can be
pursued in-
depth
- higher
percentage of
response is
possible
- subject does
not have to be
literate
- time and
resources
consuming
-
interpersonal
relationship
between the
subject and
the
researcher is
different for
each
interview
Problems that
may be
encountered:
- Responses
may only be
opinions.
- The
respondent
may attempt
to seek the
interviewer’s
approval.
Categories
Interviews can be categorized into 5 groups in
which researchers may prefer one or two types
to use, these are:
1. Standardized- interviewer uses exact
wordings of the interview schedule;
structured
2. Non-standardized- the interviewers has
the freedom to ask further questions as he
deems fit for data gathering.
3. Semi-standardized- specific number of
questions may be asked by the interviewer
who may probe these questions further as
needed.
4. Focused interview-the interviewer asks
a series of questions based on the previous
understanding and knowledge of the
subjects. The interview begins with an outline
of topics and it allows freedom to deviate
from the prepared agenda; partially-
structured/ semi-standardized
interview
5. Non-directive- subject is allowed to
express his feelings without being questioned
and without fear of disapproval; the
interviewer is not allowed to suggest ideas;
and since it allows complete freedom, the
interview result is more comprehensive and
that the respondent’s values and thoughts
are more reflected.
3. OBSERVATION
- Most direct means of
studying the subjects
when the researcher is
interested in their
behavior (common in
nursing research wherein
the researcher assume
several roles in observing
- inexpensive to
employ
- the researcher
is not
dependent on
subjects who
consent to
answer
- allows
complete view
- accurate
prediction of a
situation or
event to be
observed is
unlikely;
therefore it is
difficult to be
always present
to observe key
Approaches
1. Participant observation- the
investigator blends in the activity of the
group study (eg.: disguise as a patient, rating
not only the services he receives but all other
activities).
2. Non-participant- the observer uses
quantitative instruments (weighing scales,
thermometers, ECG monitor, etc.). The

nursing situations- a
visiting strager, a patient,
an eager-learner, a
partipant or a non-
participant one)
of situation as it
develops and
affords inclusion
of a sequence
of events
- can be
discontinued
and resumed
anytime
events
- researcher
has to wait for
the
spontaneous
occurrence of
observed
situation
- biases based
on the
observer’s
cultural
background
and personal
interpretation
is likely
- the presence
of an observer
gives the
subject a
quality that is
normally
absent
- some events
occur so
rapidly that
recoding all
the details can
be difficult
- requires
intensive
training
observer stands outside the phenomena
being studied.
3. The use of one-way mirror or
hidden cameras
4. Anecdotal records- observation and
recording of situations that are as natural as
possible (eg.: classroom, nursing unit), free
from limiting conditions imposed by a
prepared record; written down at the time of
occurrence (eg: personality traits, skills,
quality of work, etc); Useful in continuing
individual records that can be utilized for
guidance and clinical studies of students or
personnel.
5. Critical Incident Technique
(a new technique); requires the written
account of respondents on a particular
observed situation.
Factors to consider when performing
interview:
HALO EFFECT- the observer may have the
tendency to rate certain subjects as consistently
high or low on everything because of the good
impression the subjects give the rater.
HAWTHORNE’S EFFECT- The people may
deliberately change their behavior because they
know they are being studied or observed.
4. RECORDS
Provides readily available
and valuable source of
information
(libraries, offices, homes,
institutions;
correspondences, patient’s
charts, census data,
diaries)
- records are
unbiased
- covers a long
period of time
- inexpensive,
convenient and
time-saving
- it may be
incomplete in
which the
researcher
cannot add on
it
- accuracy is
unknown
- records were
not collected
from a specific
study
To establish authenticity and accuracy of
records, 3 major criteria are necessary:
1. Authorship- identity of the person who
conceived the material.
2. Body- is the outward form of the material.
3. Function- is the purpose for which it was
compiled.
Considerations in the use of Records:
- Employees in an organization may not want an outsider
(researcher) looking at their private files.
- Files may contain names of individuals that the organization
may not want to disclose.
- Records may require special help in interpretation.
- To gain access, the researcher may have to guarantee
anonymity and present a copy of research findings to the
organization.
PHYSIOLOGICAL
MEASUREMENT
Common modality in
nursing research
1. Self-documentation - Is used when the subject cannot be monitored closely.
This includes experiences that cannot be measured by others such as pain, or
degree of mobility.
This may reveal information not previously known which could build knowledge in
areas not yet explored which may contribute, modify or improve management of
patient care. (Eg.: the use of Ambulatory BP Monitor)
2. Laboratory Tests- Provide direct, precise and accurate measure of various
physiologic conditions. Informed consent must be taken and specific instructions
must be given to ensure accuracy of results.

4.2 Data Collection
DATA COLLECTION
The phenomena in which researchers are interested must ultimately be captured and translated into data for analysis. Any
research project needs a high-quality data collection approach to ensure accuracy of findings.
Data Sources
One of the first decisions that investigators make with regard to research data concerns whether to use existing data or to
collect data generated specifically for the study. Most researchers develop original data, but they often take advantage of
existing information (secondary and metanalyses for example make use of data gathered by others, the same case with
historical research).
The major disadvantage of the use original data (obtained by the researcher) compared with the use of existing data or
records is that obtaining data is expensive and time consuming.
The Use Existing Data/ Record
Advantages Disadvantages
- Economical.
- Permits Examination of trends overtime (if the data
were obtained repeatedly).
- Investigators do not have to rely on participant’s
cooperation.
- Bias in records (“selective deposit-selective deposit” by
the record keeper).
- Difficulty in gaining access to institutional records.
- authenticity, authorship and accuracy issues
The difference between using records and secondary analyses is that doing secondary analysis typically has a
ready-to-analyze data set, whereas using records have to assemble the data set, and considerable coding and data
manipulation usually are necessary.
Major Approaches in obtaining original data
Self-Reports, Observation and Biophysiologic Measures
If existing data are not available for the research question, researchers must collect new data. When developing a data collection plans,
researchers make many important decisions and consider multiple factors (discussed in the previous sections).
In nursing research, three approaches have been used most frequently- self-reports, observation and
biophysiologic measures.
SELF-REPORTS
(Questioning)
The data collector must be able to communicate verbally. It requires directness and versatility.
- A major advantage is that it yields information that would be difficult to gather by other means (Eg.:
BEHAVIORS can be observed but only if the participants engage in them publicly. For example, it is
usually impossible for a nurse researcher to observe behaviors as contraceptive practices).
- Possibility to gather retrospective and prospective data whereas observation provides
information occurring at the time of study.
However, the data collector should also be aware of the limitations about the validity and accuracy of
self-reports:
Self-preservation happens particularly if the answers would reveal embarrassing or socially
unacceptable behavior. It is one’s nature to preserve himself in the best light, and this may conflict
with the truth.
An effective approach to counteract this is:

Projective technique is a way of obtaining data indirectly, this is done by providing stimulus of low
structure (more relaxed, less demanding data collecting technique) which allows the participant to
“read in” and describe their own feelings.
(Eg.: A study to describe the feelings of a sexually abused children uses in-depth analysis through
interview and analysis of their drawings).
OBSERVATION
(an alternative to
self-reports to obtain
information on
objective behavior
and characteristics)
This requires effective use of human senses or with the use of technical apparatus such as video
equipment.
This is effective to use when the nurse researcher gathers evidences on the effectiveness of nursing
measures and practices (eg.: how a psychiatric patient reacts when he is transferred to a seclusion to
manage destructive behavior). Observations may also be needed when subjects cannot describe
adequately their own behaviors or unable to articulate their actions (eg.: preoperative manifestations
of anxiety; young children and mentally ill
A possible challenge on the use of this approach is a phenomenon called:
Reactivity* in which, the subject intentionally distorts behavior due to awareness that he is being
observed. This can be eliminated if the observations are made without the subject’s knowledge
through some type of concealment or one-way mirror (however, a truly informed consent is an issue
associated with these techniques).
(This was discussed and described as HAWTHORNE’S EFFECT in the previous section)
BIOPHYSIOLOGIC
MEASURES
(quantitative-
objective)
The trend in nursing research has been toward increased clinical investigations result to greater
utilization of this approach.
The major advantage is that since it uses instruments that are readily available in heathcare settings
(eg.: BP apparatus; spirometer), the costs of this measure is minimal or nonexistent.
The major strengths are objectivity, relative precision and sensitivity.
(Eg.: two nurses reading the same thermometer at the same time to measure the effectiveness of a
drug on fever will produce identical readings; relative precision- eg.: the subject complains of extreme
pain and the he is bradycardic further confirms the intensity of pain ).
Yields exceptionally high quality data.
Researchers’ decision about research design usually is independent of decisions about data collection methods. For
example, a researcher using an experimental design can rely on self-report data- as researcher doing an ethnography (non-
experimental).
The RESEARCH QUESTION may dictate which specific method of data collection to use (but researchers often have vast
approaches in data collection plan and sometimes go beyond the conventional ones).
BIASES may interfere with obtaining data using any of the mentioned approaches. Particularly because of involvement
of emotions, prejudices, attitudes and values of the researcher, personal interest, anticipation of what is to be observed
among others. Biases cannot probably be eliminated but can be minimized through careful training.
Dimensions of Data Collection:
Structure, Quantifiability, Researcher Obtrusiveness and Objectivity
Regardless of what specific approach is used, data collection methods vary among these four important dimensions.
STRUCTURE
Structured- used in quantitative studies; data are easy to analyze (data can be computed in
terms of percentages for example) but limited in terms of explaining the underlying meaning of
responses; a formal instrument must be developed (or borrowed) such as questionnaire.
Unstructured- used in qualitative studies; it provides an opportunity for an in-depth
examination of a phenomenon- it allows thoughtful and deeper responses; data are difficult to
analyze and is not suited for respondents who are not good in expressing themselves; no formal
instrument is needed although a list of the type of information needed.
RESEARCHER
OBTRUSIVENESS
RESEARCHER obtrusiveness is most likely to be problematic/ triggered when:
a. participants have underlying vested interest in the study outcome
b. participant is engaged in socially unacceptable behavior
c. participant does not comply with instructions
d. participant have a strong need to “look good”
Researcher obtrusiveness most likely can distort data collection undermining the value of
research; when such is unavoidable, researchers should make an effort to make participants at
ease, stress the importance of naturalistic behavior and maintain a neutral and nonjudgmental
demeanor.

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